Nanoscience and Technology

Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques

By: Bharat Bhushan (Editor), Harald Fuchs (Editor)

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Hardcover | 21 February 2006

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468 Pages

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The Nobel Prize of 1986 on Sc- ningTunnelingMicroscopysignaled a new era in imaging. The sc- ning probes emerged as a new - strument for imaging with a p- cision suf?cient to delineate single atoms. At ?rst there were two - the Scanning Tunneling Microscope, or STM, and the Atomic Force Mic- scope, or AFM. The STM relies on electrons tunneling between tip and sample whereas the AFM depends on the force acting on the tip when it was placed near the sample. These were quickly followed by the M- netic Force Microscope, MFM, and the Electrostatic Force Microscope, EFM. The MFM will image a single magnetic bit with features as small as 10nm. With the EFM one can monitor the charge of a single electron. Prof. Paul Hansma at Santa Barbara opened the door even wider when he was able to image biological objects in aqueous environments. At this point the sluice gates were opened and a multitude of different instruments appeared. There are signi?cant differences between the Scanning Probe Microscopes or SPM, and others such as the Scanning Electron Microscope or SEM. The probe microscopes do not require preparation of the sample and they operate in ambient atmosphere, whereas, the SEM must operate in a vacuum environment and the sample must be cross-sectioned to expose the proper surface. However, the SEM can record 3D image and movies, features that are not available with the scanning probes.

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"The editors have done a good job in making the various chapters quite readable and most of the chapters are well written on a level that will be accessible to most readers. ... As is usually the case with Springer books, these volumes have been beautifully printed, illustrated, and nicely bound for long term durability." (Gary J. Long & Fernande Grandjean, Physicalia Magazine, Vol. 29 (4), 2007)

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Higher Harmonics in Dynamic Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Multimodal Model of the Microcantilever	p. 4
Overview	p. 4
Modal Analysis	p. 5
Tip-Sample Interaction	p. 7
State Space Formulation	p. 9
Dynamics: Linearized Tip-Sample Interaction	p. 11
Poles and Zeros	p. 13
Dynamics: Nonlinear Interaction	p. 16
Optical Readout	p. 20
Higher Harmonic Imaging	p. 23
Spectroscopy: Distinguishing Two Polymers	p. 27
Overview	p. 27
Experimental Details	p. 28
Signal Analysis	p. 28
Outlook	p. 33
References	p. 33
Atomic Force Acoustic Microscopy	p. 37
Introduction	p. 38
Near-field Acoustic Microscopy	p. 39
Scanning Probe Techniques and Nanoindentation	p. 40
Vibration Modes of AFM Cantilevers	p. 41
Linear Contact-resonance Spectroscopy Using Flexural Modes	p. 42
Flexural Vibrations of Clamped-free Beams	p. 44
The Point-mass Model	p. 47
Experiments with Clamped-free Beams	p. 48
Contact Forces as Linear Springs and Dashpots	p. 51
Characteristic Equation of the Surface-coupled Beam	p. 55
Discussion of the Characteristic Equation	p. 58
Influence of an Additional Mass	p. 61
Roots of the Characteristic Equation with Damping	p. 63
Forced Vibration	p. 64
Imaging and Contrast Inversion	p. 70
Sensitivity of the Flexural Modes	p. 73
Quantitative Evaluation	p. 76
Experiments for Quantitative Evaluation	p. 78
Nonlinear Forces	p. 82
Conclusions	p. 83
Appendix	p. 84
Definitions	p. 84
UAFM-mode	p. 85
AFAM-mode	p. 86
References	p. 88
Scanning Ion Conductance Microscopy	p. 91
Introduction	p. 91
Fundamental Principles	p. 92
Basic Setup	p. 92
Nanopipettes	p. 95
Electrodes	p. 96
Ion Currents Through Nanopipettes	p. 97
Background Theory	p. 97
Simple Analytical Model	p. 97
Finite Element Modeling	p. 99
Experimental Current-Distance Curves	p. 101
Imaging with Ion Current Feedback	p. 102
Advanced Techniques	p. 103
Modulation Methods	p. 104
Applications in Bioscience	p. 106
Combination with Other Scanning Techniques	p. 107
Combination with Atomic Force Microscopy	p. 108
Application in Material Science	p. 108
Combination with Shear Force Microscopy	p. 111
Application in Bioscience	p. 114
Outlook	p. 115
References	p. 116
Spin-Polarized Scanning Tunneling Microscopy	p. 121
Introduction	p. 121
The Resolution Problem in Magnetic Imaging	p. 121
Magnetism and Spin	p. 122
The Tunneling Magnetoresistance Effect	p. 122
The Principle of Spin-polarized Scanning Tunneling Microscopy	p. 124
The Constant Current Mode	p. 125
The Spectroscopic Mode	p. 125
Differential Magnetic Imaging Mode	p. 126
Experimental Set-up	p. 127
Ferromagnetic Domains and Domain Walls	p. 128
Ultra-sharp Domain Walls in Co(0001)	p. 129
Asymmetric Neel Caps in Fe(001)	p. 131
Antiferromagnets in Contact with Ferromagnets	p. 133
Mn on Fe(001) and Topologically Induced Frustrations	p. 133
The Layered Antiferromagnet Cr on Fe(001)	p. 136
Bulk Versus Surface: Which Electronic States Cause the Spin Contrast?	p. 137
Voltage Dependence of the TMR Effect in Co(0001)	p. 137
Voltage Dependence of the TMR Effect in Cr/Fe(001)	p. 139
Conclusion	p. 140
References	p. 140
Dynamic Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy	p. 143
Introduction	p. 144
Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 145
Dynamic Force Microscopy Imaging	p. 146
Force Spectroscopy	p. 149
Principles	p. 149
Theory	p. 151
Applications	p. 153
Combined Imaging and Spectroscopy	p. 158
Concluding Remarks	p. 161
References	p. 161
Sensor Technology for Scanning Probe Microscopy and New Applications	p. 165
Introductory Remarks	p. 165
Material Aspects of Probe Fabrication	p. 166
Mechanical Properties of Cantilever Probes	p. 167
Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy	p. 174
Principle of Near-Field Optics	p. 174
Probes for Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy (SNOM)	p. 175
Probes for Ultrafast Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 179
Improved Sampling Technique	p. 181
Functionalized Tips	p. 182
Tip Modification	p. 182
Applications	p. 183
Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy	p. 186
Principles	p. 186
Applications	p. 189
Tips for Magnetic Force Microscopy	p. 192
Ideal Tip Shape	p. 192
Hand-Made Tips	p. 193
Coating AFM Tips	p. 194
Tip Planes: The CantiClever Concept	p. 195
References	p. 197
Quantitative Nanomechanical Measurements in Biology	p. 205
Stiffness of Biological Samples	p. 205
Cell Structure	p. 205
Determination of Young's Modulus	p. 208
Brief Overview of the Application of AFM to Studies of Living Cells	p. 217
Summary	p. 222
Friction Force Microscopy	p. 224
Friction and Chemical Force Microscopy	p. 225
Applications of FFM/CFM	p. 229
Summary	p. 236
References	p. 237
Scanning Microdeformation Microscopy: Subsurface Imaging and Measurement of Elastic Constants at Mesoscopic Scale	p. 241
Introduction	p. 241
Review and Physical Background of Near-Field Acoustic Microscopes	p. 242
Review of Near-Field Microscopes	p. 242
Physical Basis for Near-Field Acoustics and the Scale Effect	p. 244
Mechanical Approach	p. 247
Models of Subsurface Sensing Using Acoustic Waves and Surface Bending	p. 252
Imaging and Measurement with Scanning Microdeformation Microscopy	p. 254
Configuration	p. 254
Application to Subsurface Imaging	p. 256
Characterization of Local Mechanical Constants	p. 259
Specific Application	p. 260
Thin Film Measurements	p. 260
Shape Memory Alloy	p. 264
Viscosimetry	p. 267
Ultimate Metrology: Measurements at the Mechanical Noise Level	p. 274
Conclusion	p. 278
References	p. 279
Electrostatic Force and Force Gradient Microscopy: Principles, Points of Interest and Application to Characterisation of Semiconductor Materials and Devices	p. 283
Introduction	p. 285
Principles	p. 285
Basic Relations	p. 286
Principles of Surface-voltage Measurements	p. 287
Detection of Strong Local Electrical Effect via the "Topographic" Data	p. 294
Conclusions	p. 296
Observation and Interpretation	p. 297
DC Observations	p. 299
[Omega] Observations	p. 300
2[Omega] Observations	p. 300
Surface Voltage Observations	p. 302
Guidelines for Interpretation	p. 302
Future Opportunities	p. 304
Interest in the KFGM Method	p. 304
Spatially Resolved Observations	p. 309
Another Way to Estimate the Maximum Possible Spatial Resolution	p. 311
Some Applications	p. 313
Applications Under Ambient Conditions	p. 314
Vacuum or UHV Applications	p. 316
Conclusion	p. 316
References	p. 318
Polarization-Modulation Techniques in Near-Field Optical Microscopy for Imaging of Polarization Anisotropy in Photonic Nanostructures	p. 321
Introduction	p. 321
Polarimetric Imaging	p. 322
The Jones Formalism	p. 325
Electromagnetic Field Diffracted by a SNOM Aperture	p. 327
Experimental Implementations	p. 333
Static Polarization SNOM	p. 333
Polarization-Modulation SNOM: Illumination Mode	p. 337
Polarization-Modulation SNOM: Collection Mode	p. 342
Applications of SNOM Polarimetry	p. 344
Polarization Responses of Photonic Waveguides	p. 345
Measuring Stress-Induced Birefringence	p. 348
Polarization Anisotropy in Mesoscale-Structured Materials	p. 349
Polarization Anisotropy in Polymers	p. 351
Polarization Anisotropy in Photoluminescence Emission	p. 354
Conclusions	p. 357
References	p. 357
Focused Ion Beam as a Scanning Probe: Methods and Applications	p. 361
Introduction	p. 361
Description of the System	p. 362
System Overview	p. 362
Liquid Metal Ion Source (LMIS)	p. 363
Ion Optics	p. 364
Dual Beam Systems	p. 365
FIB Processes	p. 367
Imaging	p. 367
Milling	p. 372
Gas-Assisted Etching	p. 376
Gas-Assisted Deposition	p. 377
Ion Beam Lithography	p. 379
Main Applications	p. 380
FIB as an Analytical Technique	p. 381
FIB in the Semiconductor Industry	p. 389
Micromachining	p. 401
Future Directions	p. 408
References	p. 409
Subject Index	p. 413
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Nanoscience and Technology

Scanning Probe Microscopy Techniques

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