| Preface and Acknowledgements | p. xi |
| Introduction to the nature of monitoring problems and to rivers | p. 1 |
| Why we need well-designed monitoring programs | p. 3 |
| Human pressures on flowing waters | p. 3 |
| The need for this book | p. 5 |
| The scope, approach and intended audiences of this book | p. 7 |
| The structure of the book and the purpose of each of the chapters | p. 9 |
| Important issue | p. 13 |
| The ecological nature of flowing waters | p. 14 |
| Rivers and their catchments | p. 14 |
| The biota of rivers and streams | p. 18 |
| Concepts of river structure and functioning | p. 20 |
| Issues of scale and patchiness in flowing waters | p. 23 |
| Important issues | p. 26 |
| Assessment of perturbation | p. 28 |
| Types of disturbance | p. 28 |
| The purposes of monitoring | p. 35 |
| Important issues | p. 42 |
| Principles of inference and design | p. 43 |
| Inferential issues for monitoring | p. 45 |
| Sampling | p. 47 |
| Uncertainty and probability | p. 48 |
| Variables | p. 54 |
| Estimation | p. 57 |
| Statistical models | p. 61 |
| Analyses of variance (ANOVA) | p. 76 |
| Hypothesis-testing: classical approach | p. 82 |
| Hypothesis-testing: the Bayesian approach | p. 94 |
| Assumptions of statistical analyses of monitoring programs | p. 97 |
| Univariate and multivariate analysis | p. 105 |
| Important issues | p. 113 |
| The logical bases of monitoring design | p. 115 |
| Classes of monitoring | p. 116 |
| Monitoring to detect human impacts on the environment | p. 117 |
| BACI designs | p. 120 |
| Scales of impact and monitoring | p. 125 |
| Careful design is the most important step | p. 134 |
| Important issues | p. 134 |
| Problems in applying designs | p. 137 |
| A brief historical sketch | p. 137 |
| Problems inherent in the nature of rivers | p. 142 |
| Problems arising from the types of variables used | p. 151 |
| Social, institutional and political issues | p. 158 |
| Important issues | p. 162 |
| Alternative models for impact assessment | p. 164 |
| Background of approaches | p. 166 |
| These approaches are different! | p. 172 |
| Formal sampling and analytical framework | p. 174 |
| Power considerations | p. 188 |
| Detecting more subtle effects | p. 192 |
| Extent of impacts | p. 193 |
| Flexible analysis/inflexible hypothesis | p. 194 |
| Important issues | p. 194 |
| Applying principles of inference and design | p. 195 |
| Applying monitoring designs to flowing waters | p. 197 |
| Spatial variation and the location of controls | p. 198 |
| Temporal variation, and Before and After sampling | p. 224 |
| Doing the sampling | p. 234 |
| A worked example - effects of liming to decrease acidity | p. 234 |
| Important issues | p. 247 |
| Inferential uncertainty and multiple lines of evidence | p. 249 |
| A brief revisit of inferential uncertainty and probability | p. 251 |
| A levels-of-evidence approach | p. 253 |
| A suggested step-by-step guide to using a levels-of-evidence approach | p. 260 |
| Some final comments on the process | p. 286 |
| Important issues | p. 286 |
| Variables that are used for monitoring in flowing waters | p. 289 |
| Considerations for choosing variables | p. 298 |
| Relative weighting of attributes | p. 303 |
| Important issues | p. 305 |
| Defining important changes | p. 306 |
| Why do we need to define changes in terms of 'effect sizes'? | p. 306 |
| Kinds of change, risks and consequences | p. 310 |
| Practical steps, and some difficulties, in setting an effect size | p. 314 |
| Important issues | p. 320 |
| Decisions and trade-offs | p. 323 |
| Making statistical decisions | p. 323 |
| Balancing Type I and Type II errors | p. 326 |
| Cost-benefit analysis and design | p. 336 |
| Further variations on balanced decision-making | p. 337 |
| Important issues | p. 339 |
| Optimization | p. 341 |
| What we mean by optimization | p. 341 |
| By now you should have | p. 341 |
| You will need an estimate of variance | p. 343 |
| Developing an idealized sampling scheme | p. 345 |
| Trading off | p. 347 |
| Uncertainty in optimization | p. 352 |
| Post-monitoring 'optimization': implications for decision criteria | p. 353 |
| A worked example - liming to decrease acidity of streams | p. 354 |
| Important issues | p. 366 |
| The special case of monitoring attempts at restoration | p. 368 |
| Issues concerning the study of ecological restoration | p. 369 |
| Can BACI designs be applied to ecological restoration? | p. 370 |
| Analytical techniques applicable to restoration monitoring | p. 374 |
| How long should we monitor attempts at restoration? | p. 377 |
| The need for clarity in declaring the goals of restoration | p. 378 |
| Important issues | p. 380 |
| What's next? | p. 381 |
| Links with management decisions as points of negotiation | p. 381 |
| Changing monitoring objectives with progress in understanding | p. 383 |
| Role of experiments in verifying mechanistic understanding of an impact | p. 383 |
| How do we evaluate the effectiveness of a monitoring program? | p. 385 |
| What research could complement monitoring programs? | p. 386 |
| Reiterating the principles of this book | p. 386 |
| References | p. 392 |
| Index | p. 421 |
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