Microgrids

Foreword xiii

Preface xv

List of Contributors xix

1 The Microgrids Concept 1
Christine Schwaegerl and Liang Tao

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The Microgrid Concept as a Means to Integrate Distributed Generation 3

1.3 Clarification of the Microgrid Concept 4

1.4 Operation and Control of Microgrids 8

1.5 Market Models for Microgrids 12

1.6 Status Quo and Outlook of Microgrid Applications 22

2 Microgrids Control Issues 25
Aris Dimeas, Antonis Tsikalakis, George Kariniotakis and George Korres

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Control Functions 25

2.3 The Role of Information and Communication Technology 27

2.4 Microgrid Control Architecture 28

2.5 Centralized and Decentralized Control 32

2.6 Forecasting 35

2.7 Centralized Control 40

2.8 Decentralized Control 51

2.9 State Estimation 72

2.10 Conclusions 76

3 Intelligent Local Controllers 81
Thomas Degner, Nikos Soultani, Alfred Engler and Asier Gil de Muro

3.1 Introduction 81

3.2 Inverter Control Issues in the Formation of Microgrids 82

3.4 Implications of Line Parameters on Frequency and Voltage Droop Concepts 92

3.5 Development and Evaluation of Innovative Local Controls to Improve Stability 98

3.6 Conclusions 115

4 Microgrid Protection 117
Alexander Oudalov, Thomas Degner, Frank van Overbeeke and Jose Miguel Yarza

4.1 Introduction 117

4.2 Challenges for Microgrid Protection 118

4.3 Adaptive Protection for Microgrids 125

4.4 Fault Current Source for Effective Protection in Islanded Operation 146

4.5 Fault Current Limitation in Microgrids 151

4.6 Conclusions 154

5 Operation of Multi-Microgrids 165
Joao Abel PeScas Lopes, Andre Madureira, Nuno Gil and Fernanda Resende

5.1 Introduction 165

5.2 Multi-Microgrid Control and Management Architecture 167

5.3 Coordinated Voltage/var Support 169

5.4 Coordinated Frequency Control 178

5.5 Emergency Functions (Black Start) 186

5.6 Dynamic Equivalents 192

5.7 Conclusions 202

6 Pilot Sites: Success Stories and Learnt Lessons 206
George Kariniotakis, Aris Dimeas and Frank Van Overbeeke (Sections 6.1, 6.2)

6.1 Introduction 206

6.2 Overview of Microgrid Projects in Europe 206

6.3 Overview of Microgrid Projects in the USA 231
John Romankiewicz, Chris Marnay (Section 6.3)

6.4 Overview of Japanese Microgrid Projects 249
Satoshi Morozumi (Section 6.4)

6.5 Overview of Microgrid Projects in China 262
Meiqin Mao (Section 6.5)

6.6 An Off-Grid Microgrid in Chile 270
Rodrigo Palma Behnke and Guillermo Jimenez-Estevez (Section 6.6)

7 Quantification of Technical, Economic, Environmental and Social Benefits of Microgrid Operation 275
Christine Schwaegerl and Liang Tao

7.1 Introduction and Overview of Potential Microgrid Benefits 275

7.2 Setup of Benefit Quantification Study 278

7.3 Quantification of Microgrids Benefits under Standard Test Conditions 285

7.4 Impact of External Market Prices and Pricing Policies 296

7.5 Impact of Microgrid Operation Strategy 303

7.6 Extension to European Scale 307

7.7 Conclusions 310

References 313

Index 315