| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Presentation of the Main Metaheuristics | |
| Simulated Annealing | p. 23 |
| Introduction | p. 23 |
| Presentation of the method | p. 24 |
| Analogy between an optimization problem and some physical phenomena | p. 24 |
| Real annealing and simulated annealing | p. 25 |
| Simulated annealing algorithm | p. 25 |
| Theoretical approaches | p. 27 |
| Theoretical convergence of simulated annealing | p. 27 |
| Configuration space | p. 28 |
| Rules of acceptance | p. 30 |
| Annealing scheme | p. 30 |
| Parallelization of the simulated annealing algorithm | p. 32 |
| Some applications | p. 35 |
| Benchmark problems of combinatorial optimization | p. 35 |
| Layout of electronic circuits | p. 36 |
| Search for an equivalent schema in electronics | p. 40 |
| Practical applications in various fields | p. 42 |
| Advantages and disadvantages of the method | p. 44 |
| Simple practical suggestions for the beginners | p. 44 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 45 |
| Tabu Search | p. 47 |
| Introduction | p. 47 |
| The quadratic assignment problem | p. 49 |
| Basic tabu search | p. 51 |
| Neighborhood | p. 51 |
| Moves, neighborhood | p. 52 |
| Evaluation of the neighborhood | p. 54 |
| Candidate list | p. 56 |
| Short-term memory | p. 57 |
| Hashing tables | p. 57 |
| Tabu list | p. 59 |
| Duration of tabu conditions | p. 60 |
| Aspiration conditions | p. 66 |
| Convergence of tabu search | p. 66 |
| Long-term memory | p. 69 |
| Frequency-based memory | p. 69 |
| Obligation to carry out move | p. 71 |
| Strategic oscillations | p. 72 |
| Conclusion | p. 72 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 72 |
| Evolutionary Algorithms | p. 75 |
| From genetics to engineering | p. 75 |
| The generic evolutionary algorithm | p. 77 |
| Selection operators | p. 77 |
| Variation operators | p. 78 |
| The generational loop | p. 78 |
| Solving a simple problem | p. 79 |
| Selection operators | p. 81 |
| Selection pressure | p. 81 |
| Genetic drift | p. 82 |
| Proportional selection | p. 83 |
| Tournament selection | p. 88 |
| Truncation selection | p. 90 |
| Replacement selections | p. 90 |
| Fitness function | p. 92 |
| Variation operators and representation | p. 93 |
| Generalities about the variation operators | p. 93 |
| Binary representation | p. 97 |
| Real representation | p. 101 |
| Some discrete representations for the permutation problems | p. 108 |
| Representation of parse trees for the genetic programming | p. 113 |
| Particular case of the genetic algorithms | p. 118 |
| Some considerations on the convergence of the evolutionary algorithms | p. 119 |
| Conclusion | p. 120 |
| Glossary | p. 121 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 122 |
| Ant Colony Algorithms | p. 123 |
| Introduction | p. 123 |
| Collective behavior of social insects | p. 124 |
| Self-organization and behavior | p. 124 |
| Natural optimization: pheromonal trails | p. 127 |
| Optimization by ant colonies and the traveling salesman problem | p. 129 |
| Basic algorithm | p. 130 |
| Variants | p. 131 |
| Choice of the parameters | p. 134 |
| Other combinatorial problems | p. 134 |
| Formalization and properties of ant colony optimization | p. 135 |
| Formalization | p. 135 |
| Pheromones and memory | p. 137 |
| Intensification/diversification | p. 137 |
| Local search and heuristics | p. 138 |
| Parallelism | p. 138 |
| Convergence | p. 139 |
| Prospect | p. 139 |
| Continuous optimization | p. 139 |
| Dynamic problems | p. 147 |
| Metaheuristics and ethology | p. 147 |
| Links with other metaheuristics | p. 148 |
| Conclusion | p. 149 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 150 |
| Variants, Extensions and Methodological Advices | |
| Some Other Metaheuristics | p. 153 |
| Introduction | p. 153 |
| Some variants of simulated annealing | p. 154 |
| Simulated diffusion | p. 154 |
| Microcanonic annealing | p. 155 |
| The threshold method | p. 157 |
| "Great deluge" method | p. 157 |
| Method of the "record to record travel" | p. 157 |
| Noising method | p. 159 |
| Method of distributed search | p. 159 |
| "Alienor" method | p. 160 |
| Particle swarm optimization method | p. 162 |
| The estimation of distribution algorithm | p. 166 |
| GRASP method | p. 169 |
| "Cross-Entropy" method | p. 170 |
| Artificial immune systems | p. 172 |
| Method of differential evolution | p. 173 |
| Algorithms inspired by the social insects | p. 175 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 176 |
| Extensions | p. 179 |
| Introduction | p. 179 |
| Adaptation for the continuous variable problems | p. 179 |
| General framework of "difficult" continuous optimization | p. 179 |
| Some continuous metaheuristics | p. 185 |
| Multimodal optimization | p. 196 |
| The problem | p. 196 |
| Niching with the sharing method | p. 196 |
| Niching with the deterministic crowding method | p. 199 |
| The clearing procedure | p. 201 |
| Speciation | p. 203 |
| Multiobjective optimization | p. 206 |
| Formalization of the problem | p. 206 |
| Simulated annealing based methods | p. 208 |
| Multiobjective evolutionary algorithms | p. 211 |
| Constrained evolutionary optimization | p. 216 |
| Penalization methods | p. 217 |
| Superiority of the feasible individuals | p. 219 |
| Repair methods | p. 220 |
| Variation operators satisfying the constraint structures | p. 221 |
| Other methods dealing with constraints | p. 223 |
| Conclusion | p. 223 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 224 |
| Methodology | p. 225 |
| Introduction | p. 225 |
| Problem modeling | p. 227 |
| Neighborhood choice | p. 228 |
| "Simple" neighborhoods | p. 228 |
| Ejection chains | p. 230 |
| Decomposition into subproblems: POPMUSIC | p. 231 |
| Conclusions on modeling and neighborhood | p. 233 |
| Improving method, simulated annealing, taboo search...? | p. 235 |
| Adaptive Memory Programming | p. 235 |
| Ant colonies | p. 236 |
| Evolutionary or memetic algorithms | p. 236 |
| Scatter Search | p. 236 |
| Vocabulary building | p. 238 |
| Path relinking | p. 239 |
| Iterative heuristics comparison | p. 240 |
| Comparing proportion | p. 241 |
| Comparing iterative optimization methods | p. 243 |
| Conclusion | p. 244 |
| Annotated bibliography | p. 247 |
| Case Studies | |
| Optimization of UMTS Radio Access Networks with Genetic Algorithms | p. 251 |
| Introduction | p. 251 |
| Introduction to mobile radio networks | p. 252 |
| Cellular network | p. 252 |
| Characteristic of the radio channel | p. 253 |
| Radio interface of the UMTS | p. 255 |
| Definition of the optimization problem | p. 261 |
| Radio planning of a UMTS network | p. 261 |
| Definition of the optimization problem | p. 262 |
| Application of the genetic algorithm to automatic planning | p. 265 |
| Coding | p. 265 |
| Genetic operators | p. 266 |
| Evaluation of the individuals | p. 267 |
| Results | p. 267 |
| Optimization of the capacity | p. 269 |
| Optimization of the loads | p. 270 |
| Optimization of the intercellular interferences | p. 272 |
| Optimization of the coverage | p. 272 |
| Optimization of the probability of access | p. 273 |
| Conclusion | p. 274 |
| Genetic Algorithms Applied to Air Traffic Management | p. 277 |
| En route conflict resolution | p. 277 |
| Complexity of the conflict resolution problem | p. 280 |
| Existing resolution methods | p. 280 |
| Modeling of the problem | p. 281 |
| Implementation of the genetic algorithm | p. 285 |
| Theoretical study of a simple example | p. 288 |
| Numerical application | p. 292 |
| Remarks | p. 295 |
| Ground Traffic optimization | p. 296 |
| Modeling | p. 296 |
| BB: the 1-against-n resolution method | p. 300 |
| GA and GA+BB: genetic algorithms | p. 301 |
| Experimental results | p. 303 |
| Conclusion | p. 306 |
| Constraint Programming and Ant Colonies Applied to Vehicle Routing Problems | p. 307 |
| Introduction | p. 307 |
| Vehicle routing problems and constraint programming | p. 308 |
| Vehicle routing problems | p. 308 |
| Constraint programming | p. 309 |
| Constraint programming applied to PDP: ILOG Dispatcher | p. 314 |
| Ant colonies | p. 316 |
| Behavior of the real ants | p. 316 |
| Ant colonies, vehicle routing problem and constraint programming | p. 316 |
| Ant colony algorithm with backtracking | p. 317 |
| Experimental results | p. 323 |
| Conclusion | p. 325 |
| Conclusion | p. 327 |
| Appendices | |
| Modeling of Simulated Annealing Through the Markov Chain Formalism | p. 331 |
| Complete Example of Implementation of Tabu Search for the Quadratic Assignment Problem | p. 339 |
| References | p. 347 |
| Index | p. 365 |
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