Preface xv
About the Authors xvii
1 Introduction to Membrane Technology 1
Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi
1.1 Overview of Membrane Technology 1
1.2 Conventional Membrane Separation Processes 2
1.2.1 Microfiltration (MF) 2
1.2.2 Ultrafiltration (UF) 2
1.2.3 Nanofiltration (NF) 3
1.2.4 Reverse Osmosis (RO) 3
1.2.5 Electrodialysis (ED) 4
1.2.6 Pervaporation (PV) 5
1.3 Molecular Weight Cutoff (MWCO) 8
1.4 Concentration Polarization 9
1.5 Membrane Fouling 10
1.6 Diafiltration 11
1.7 Historical Perspective 11
1.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Challenges 12
References 14
2 Introduction to Membrane Contactor Technology 17
Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi
2.1 Membrane Contactor Separation Processes 17
2.1.1 Membrane Contactors 17
2.1.2 History and Background of Membrane Contactors 20
2.1.3 Types of Membrane Contactor Systems 21
2.1.3.1 Solid Porous Membrane as Medium of Contact in Membrane Contactors 21
2.1.3.2 Liquid Membrane Contactors 30
2.1.4 Membrane Contactor Integrated Systems 34
2.1.5 Potential of Membrane Contactor in Concentration, Temperature Polarization, Wetting, and Fouling of Membranes 35
2.2 Conclusion and Future Trends of Membrane Contactors 37
References 38
3 Transport Theory in Membrane Contactor: Operational Principle 45
Mohammad Younas, Waheed Ur Rehman, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
3.1 Diffusional Mass and Heat Transfer Modeling 45
3.2 Membrane Characterization Models 46
3.2.1 Contact Angle and Liquid Entry Pressure 46
3.2.2 Liquid Entry Pressure (LEP) 49
3.2.3 Permporometry (Pore Size Distribution) 52
3.2.4 Electron Microscopy 52
3.3 Transport Models in Liquidâ"Liquid Contactor 52
3.3.1 Resistance in Series Model 55
3.3.1.1 Model Approach 56
3.3.1.2 Two Film Theory 56
3.3.1.3 Phase Equilibrium in Liquidâ"Liquid System 58
3.3.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient 59
3.4 Transport Model in Gasâ"Liquid Systems 60
3.4.1 Phase Equilibrium for Gasâ"Liquid System 61
3.4.2 Resistance in Series Model 61
3.5 Reactive Diffusion in Liquid-Side Boundary Layer 62
3.6 Mass Transfer Resistance Analysis 63
3.7 Correlations for Mass Transfer Coefficients 65
3.7.1 Correlation for Flow in Shell Side 66
3.7.2 Correlation for Flow in Tube Side 66
3.7.3 Correlation for Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 68
3.8 Correlations for Heat Transfer Coefficients 69
3.9 Interfacial Transfer Area 70
3.10 Axial Pressure Drop in Membrane Contactor Module 71
3.11 Dynamic Modeling 71
3.12 Transfer Units and Module Design Length 72
3.13 Numerical Modeling of Mass Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 73
3.13.1 Mass Transfer in Shell Side 75
3.13.2 Mass Transfer Inside Fibers 77
3.13.3 Mass Transfer in Membrane Pores 78
3.13.4 Numerical Modeling Term in the Case of Membrane Wetting 79
3.14 Numerical Modeling of Heat Transport in Membrane Contactor Modules 81
3.14.1 Governing Equation in Cold and Hot Channels 82
3.14.2 Governing Equation Inside Membrane 82
3.15 Model Solution Algorithm 83
3.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 84
3.A Membrane Transport Theory: Operational Principle 84
3.A.1 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Liquidâ"Liquid Contactor 84
3.A.1.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 84
3.A.1.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 85
3.A.1.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 85
3.A.1.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 85
3.A.1.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 86
3.A.1.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 86
3.A.1.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 86
3.A.1.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 87
3.A.1.9 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 87
3.A.1.10 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Aqueous Phase to Organic Phase) 87
3.A.1.11 Composite Membrane Based on Organic-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 87
3.A.1.12 Composite Membrane Based on Aqueous-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Organic Phase to Aqueous Phase) 88
3.A.2 Steady-State Resistance-in-Series Model Across Gasâ"Liquid Contactor 88
3.A.2.1 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 88
3.A.2.2 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 88
3.A.2.3 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 89
3.A.2.4 Hydrophobic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 89
3.A.2.5 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 89
3.A.2.6 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 90
3.A.2.7 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 90
3.A.2.8 Hydrophilic Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 91
3.A.2.9 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91
3.A.2.10 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91
3.A.2.11 Composite Membrane Based on Liquid-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Gas Phase to Liquid Phase) 91
3.A.2.12 Composite Membrane Based on Gas-Phase Side (Species Transfers from Liquid Phase to Gas Phase) 92
3.A.3 Dynamic Modeling Across the Storage Tank 92
References 93
4 Module Design and Membrane Materials 99
Nabilah Fazil, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Membrane Module Design Configuration 100
4.2.1 Plate-and-Frame Modules 100
4.2.2 Spiral Wound Modules 103
4.2.3 Tubular Modules 104
4.2.4 Hollow Fiber Modules 106
4.3 Membrane Contactor Module Housing 111
4.4 Membrane Module Flow Configuration 116
4.5 Membrane Materials 116
4.5.1 Polymer Materials 118
4.5.2 Inorganic Fillers 125
4.6 Membrane and Membrane Module for Membrane Distillation (MD) and Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 126
4.7 Solvents Used in Membrane Synthesis 128
4.8 Membrane Synthesis Techniques 128
4.9 Conclusions 130
4.10 Future Perspective 131
References 131
5 Mode of Operation in Membrane Contactors 143
Waheed Ur Rehman, Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Muhammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 143
5.1.1 Basic Principles of MD Process 143
5.1.2 MD Configurations 144
5.1.3 Overall Driving Force 145
5.1.4 Overall Mass Transfer Coefficient, K 147
5.1.4.1 Feed-Side Mass Transfer 148
5.1.4.2 Membrane Mass Transfer 150
5.1.4.3 Strip-Side Mass Transfer 151
5.1.5 Vapor Pressure Polarization Coefficient, Îv 152
5.1.5.1 DCMD 152
5.1.5.2 Feedâ"Side and Stripâ"Side Heat Transfer 153
5.1.5.3 Membrane Heat Transfer 153
5.1.6 AGMD 154
5.1.6.1 SGMD 156
5.1.7 VMD 157
5.1.8 Membranes for MD Process 157
5.1.9 Pros and Cons of MD Process 158
5.1.10 Future Prospects of MD Process 161
5.2 Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) 161
5.2.1 Basic Principles of OMD Process 161
5.2.2 Overall Mass Transfer 163
5.2.2.1 Mass Transfer Across Feed Boundary Layer 163
5.2.2.2 Mass Transfer Across Stripper Boundary Layer 163
5.2.2.3 Mass Transfer Across Membrane 164
5.2.2.4 Mass Transfer Coefficient for Feed and Stripper Side 164
5.2.2.5 Mass Transfer Coefficient Across Membrane 164
5.2.3 Stripping Solutions for OMD 165
5.2.4 Membranes for OMD Process 166
5.2.5 Pros and Cons of OMD Process 166
5.3 Forward Osmosis 167
5.3.1 Basic Principles of FO Process 167
5.3.2 Calculation of the Osmotic Pressures 167
5.3.3 Reverse Solute Flux in FO 170
5.3.4 Membranes for FO Process 170
5.3.5 Draw Solutes for FO Process 171
5.3.6 Pros and Cons of FO Process 172
5.4 Pressure-Retarded Osmosis 172
5.4.1 Basic Principles of PRO Process 172
5.4.2 Membranes for PRO Process 175
5.4.3 Pros and Cons of PRO Process 176
5.5 Conclusions 176
References 176
6 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology in Wastewater Treatment 185
Ayesha Rehman, Xianhui Li, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
6.1 Introduction 185
6.2 Common Toxic Substances in Wastewater 187
6.2.1 Phenols 187
6.2.2 Heavy Metals 188
6.2.3 Ammonia 188
6.2.4 Hydrogen Sulfide 188
6.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 188
6.2.6 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 188
6.2.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 189
6.2.8 Nitrobenzene 189
6.3 Environmental Risks of Wastewater 189
6.4 Membrane Technology for Wastewater Treatment 190
6.5 Membrane Contactor Technology for Removal of Organic Contaminants from Wastewater 193
6.6 Removal of Inorganic Contaminants from Wastewater 200
6.7 Polymer-Based Adsorption Membranes 202
6.8 Ion-Exchange Nanoporous Membrane 204
6.9 Micellar-Enhanced Ultrafiltration Membrane 204
6.10 Membrane Materials for Water Treatment 205
6.11 Membrane Materials for Microfiltration (MF) and Ultrafiltration (UF) 206
6.12 Membrane Materials for Nanofiltration (NF) 206
6.13 Membrane Materials for Reverse Osmosis (RO) 207
6.14 Membrane Materials for Forward Osmosis (FO) 207
6.15 Challenges in Membrane Materials to Prevent Fouling 208
6.16 Conclusions and Perspectives 209
References 210
7 Applications of Membrane Contactors in Food Industry 219
Waheed Ur Rehman, Bazla Sarwar, Sidra Saqib, Ahmad Mukhtar, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
7.1 Introduction 219
7.2 Membrane Distillation (MD) Applications in Food Industry 219
7.2.1 MD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 221
7.2.2 MD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 222
7.2.3 MD in the Concentration of Milk 222
7.2.4 MD in the Treatment of Saline Dairy Waste Water 223
7.2.5 MD in the Concentration of Muscadine Grape Pomace 224
7.2.6 MD in the Recovery of Phenols from Olive Mill Wastewater 225
7.2.7 MD in the Concentration of Sucrose Solution 225
7.2.8 Effect of Operating Parameters on MD Flux 225
7.3 Application of Osmotic Membrane Distillation (OMD) in Food Industry 227
7.3.1 Effect of Operating Conditions on OMD Water Flux 228
7.3.2 OMD in the Concentration of Apple Juice 231
7.3.3 OMD in the Concentration of Grape Juice 232
7.3.4 OMD in the Concentration of Pomegranate Juice 233
7.3.5 OMD in the Concentration of Orange Juice 235
7.3.6 OMD in the Concentration of Cranberry and Noni Juices 235
7.3.7 OMD in the Concentration of Kiwi and Pineapple Juices 236
7.3.8 OMD in the Concentration of Tea Extracts 236
7.3.9 Dealcoholization of Beer and Wine 237
7.4 Coupled Operation of Osmotic Distillation and Membrane Distillation 238
7.5 Conclusions 239
7.6 Future Perspectives 239
References 240
8 Applications of Membrane Contactor Technology for Pre-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capture 247
Zarrar Salahuddin, Sarah Farrukh, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
8.1 Introduction 247
8.2 Why Pre-combustion Carbon Capture? 250
8.3 Membranes for Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 250
8.3.1 Hydrogen (H2)-Selective Membranes 250
8.3.2 CO2 -Selective Membranes 255
8.4 Advantages and Limitations of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture Using Membrane Technology 262
8.5 Applications of Pre-combustion Carbon Capture 263
8.6 Current Trends and Future Prospects 263
8.7 Concluding and Future Directions 269
References 269
9 Application of Membrane Contactor Technology for Post-combustion Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Capture 281
Muhammad B. Wazir, Muhammad Daud, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
9.1 Introduction 281
9.2 Membranes for Post-combustion CO2 Capture 282
9.2.1 Membrane Types 282
9.2.2 Membrane Modules 285
9.3 Experimental Membrane Materials for Post-combustion CO2 Sequestration 285
9.4 Commercial Membranes for Post-combustion CO2 Separation 288
9.5 Cost of Post-combustion CO2 Capture in Membrane Contactors 289
9.6 Absorbents for Post-combustion CO2 Separation 291
9.6.1 Amine-Based Absorbents 291
9.6.2 Ammonia 293
9.6.3 Salt Solutions 294
9.6.4 Ionic Liquids 295
9.7 Conclusion and Future Perspective 295
References 296
10 Market Prospects of Membrane Contactors 305
Zahra Pezeshki, Mohammad Younas, and Mashallah Rezakazemi
10.1 Membrane Contactor Market Dynamics 305
10.2 Market Overview 306
10.3 Membrane Contactor Market by Application 313
10.3.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Market 313
10.3.2 Food Processing Market 315
10.3.3 Gas Separation Market 318
10.3.4 Carbon Capture Market 321
10.4 Membrane Contactor Market, by Membrane 321
10.5 Membrane Contactor Market, by Region 325
10.6 Recent Developments of Membrane Contactor Companies 328
10.6.1 3M Company 328
10.6.2 Cobetter Filtration Equipment Pvt. Ltd. 329
10.6.3 Eurowater 329
10.6.4 JU.CLA.S Srl 329
10.6.5 Veolia Environnement SA 329
10.6.6 PTI Pacific Pty. Ltd. 330
10.6.7 Kv¦rner ASA 330
10.6.8 Lenntech B.V. 330
10.6.9 Pure Water Group 330
10.6.10 TNO Company 330
10.6.11 Euwa H. H. Eumann GmbH (Euwa) 330
10.6.12 Hydro-Elektrik GmbH 331
10.6.13 KH TEC GmbH 331
10.6.14 Romfil GmbH 331
10.7 Future Directions 331
10.8 Conclusion 332
References 332
11 Conclusions and Perspective 337
Mohammad Younas and Mashallah Rezakazemi
11.1 Future Directions 340
Index 342
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