List of Image Sets | p. XIX |
Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Historical Introduction | p. 1 |
MRI and Its Hardware | p. 9 |
Introduction | p. 9 |
Spin and Magnetization | p. 9 |
Precession: Rotating System of Reference | p. 10 |
Rotation: Excitation by RF Pulses | p. 11 |
Excitation of a Selected Slice: Gradient Field | p. 13 |
Free Induction Decay (FID) | p. 15 |
Spin Echo | p. 16 |
Determination of Position in the Read-Out Direction | p. 18 |
Determination of Position in the Phase-Encode Direction | p. 19 |
Measuring Sequence | p. 19 |
Object Slice: Voxels and Image Pixels | p. 20 |
System Architecture | p. 21 |
Magnets | p. 25 |
Superconducting Magnets | p. 27 |
Other Magnet Types | p. 29 |
Deviations from the Homogeneous Magnetic Field | p. 32 |
The Gradient Chain | p. 35 |
Gradient Power Supply and Rise Time | p. 38 |
Eddy Currents | p. 39 |
The RF Chain | p. 41 |
RF Coils | p. 42 |
The Receiver | p. 48 |
Physiological Signals | p. 51 |
The Back End | p. 53 |
Conventional Imaging Methods | p. 55 |
Introduction | p. 55 |
The Bloch Equation | p. 55 |
Precession | p. 58 |
Excitation | p. 58 |
Non-selective Pulse | p. 59 |
Slice-Selective RF Pulses | p. 59 |
Other RF Pulses | p. 62 |
Power Dissipation in an RF Pulse | p. 63 |
The Spin-Echo Imaging Sequence | p. 64 |
The <$>\vec {k}<$> Plane | p. 68 |
Discrete Sampling | p. 69 |
Sampling Point-Spread Function | p. 72 |
Thinking in Terms of <$>\vec {k}<$> Space | p. 72 |
Contrast in Spin-Echo Sequences | p. 77 |
Scan Parameters and System Design | p. 77 |
Practical Example | p. 79 |
Multiple-Slice Acquisition | p. 80 |
Imaging with Three-Dimensional Encoding | p. 81 |
The Field-Echo Imaging Sequence | p. 82 |
Artifacts | p. 84 |
Ghosting | p. 87 |
Magnetization Preparation | p. 88 |
A T1 Preparation Pulse: Inversion Recovery | p. 89 |
Other Types of Magnetization Preparation | p. 91 |
Imaging Methods with Advanced <$>\vec {k}<$>-Space Trajectories | p. 135 |
Introduction | p. 135 |
Turbo Spin Echo | p. 137 |
Profile Order | p. 139 |
Sources of Artifacts in TSE Images | p. 141 |
Echo Planar Imaging | p. 144 |
Practical Example | p. 146 |
Artifacts Due to <$>T_2^{\ast}<$> Decay and Field Inhomogeneities | p. 147 |
Artifacts Due to <$>T_2^{\ast}<$> Decay | p. 148 |
Artifacts Due to Resonance Offset | p. 150 |
Artifacts Due to Gradient Field Properties and Errors | p. 151 |
Combination of TSE and EPI: GRASE | p. 154 |
Square Spiral Imaging | p. 156 |
Joyriding in <$>\vec {k}<$> Space | p. 156 |
Spiral Imaging | p. 158 |
A Practical Example | p. 160 |
Reconstruction | p. 161 |
Artifacts in Spiral Imaging | p. 163 |
"Rosette" Trajectory | p. 165 |
Radial Imaging | p. 165 |
Some Remarks on the Reconstruction of Exotic Scans | p. 166 |
Two-Dimensional Excitation Pulses | p. 167 |
Steady-State Gradient-Echo Imaging | p. 193 |
Introduction | p. 193 |
On FIDs and ECHOs | p. 195 |
Spin Echo | p. 197 |
"Eight-Ball" Echo | p. 198 |
Stimulated Echo | p. 199 |
RF Phase | p. 201 |
Response to RF Pulses with ¿ < 90° | p. 202 |
Echoes as a Result of Many Excitations | p. 203 |
ECHO Components and RF Phase Cycling | p. 204 |
Suppressing the Spatial Variation of the Signal | p. 207 |
Conclusions of the Qualitative Description | p. 208 |
N-FFE and T2-FFE | p. 209 |
T1-FFE | p. 209 |
R-FFE | p. 209 |
Mathematical Model | p. 210 |
Rotation and Precession Matrix | p. 211 |
Relaxation Matrix | p. 212 |
Steady State | p. 212 |
Steady-State Gradient-Echo Methods (FE and FFE) | p. 219 |
Sequences with Very Long TR | p. 219 |
Sequences with T1 > TR > T2 | p. 220 |
Sequences with Small TR (TR ≅ T2) | p. 220 |
Large Net-Gradient Surface | p. 220 |
Rephased FFE | p. 224 |
FID Measurement with Spoiling of <$>M_{\rm T}^-<$>: T1-FFE (FLASH) | p. 227 |
FFE with Short TR in Steady State | p. 228 |
N-FFE, T2-FFE, and R-FFE with TR ≪ T2 | p. 229 |
T1-FFE with TR ≪ T2 | p. 231 |
Slice Profile | p. 232 |
Survey of FFE methods | p. 233 |
Transient-State Gradient-Echo Imaging | p. 247 |
Introduction | p. 247 |
Signal Level During Transient State | p. 249 |
Approach to Steady State by Assuming RF Spoiling | p. 250 |
Approach to Steady State Without Spoiling | p. 252 |
Magnetization Preparation | p. 255 |
Pre-pulse to Avoid the Transient State in T1-FFE | p. 256 |
Balanced-TFE Sequences | p. 257 |
Profile Order | p. 258 |
Survey of Transient Gradient Echo Methods | p. 259 |
Contrast and Signal-to-Noise Ratio | p. 271 |
Introduction | p. 271 |
Contrast in MR Images | p. 271 |
The Physical Mechanism of Relaxation in Tissue | p. 273 |
The BPP Theory of Relaxation in Homogeneous Matter | p. 274 |
Relaxation Effects in Tissue | p. 276 |
Fast Exchange | p. 276 |
Compartments and Slow Exchange | p. 276 |
Magnetization Transfer | p. 277 |
Contrast Agents | p. 281 |
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) | p. 283 |
Fundamental Expression for the SNR | p. 284 |
Patient Loading of the Receiving Circuit | p. 285 |
Low-Field and High-Field Systems | p. 287 |
Practical Expression for the SNR | p. 288 |
Introduction of the Scanning Parameters | p. 289 |
Influence of the Receiver on the SNR | p. 290 |
Influence of Relaxation on the SNR | p. 291 |
Application to Practical Situations | p. 292 |
SNR for Non-uniform Sampling of the <$>\vec {k}<$> Plane | p. 296 |
One-Sided Partial Scans | p. 296 |
Non-uniform Sampling with Non-linear Trajectories | p. 299 |
Reduced Matrix Acquisition | p. 299 |
Other Partial-Scan Methods | p. 300 |
Motion and Flow | p. 321 |
Introduction | p. 321 |
Moving Structures, Artifacts, and Imaging Methods | p. 322 |
Cardiac Motion | p. 322 |
Respiratory Motion | p. 324 |
Ordering of Phase Encoding | p. 324 |
Breath Hold | p. 325 |
Respiratory Gating | p. 325 |
Correction of Respiratory Movement Using Navigator Echoes | p. 325 |
Tagging | p. 327 |
Phase Shift Due to Flow in Gradient Fields | p. 328 |
Velocity Measurement Using a Bipolar Gradient | p. 330 |
Velocity-Insensitive Gradient Waveform | p. 332 |
Flow with Acceleration | p. 332 |
Influence of Field Inhomogeneities and Eddy Currents | p. 334 |
Flow Artifacts | p. 335 |
Ghosting Due to Pulsating Flow | p. 335 |
Flow Voids | p. 335 |
Shift in Phase-Encoding Direction Due to Flow | p. 336 |
Velocity-Insensitive Imaging Sequences: Flow Compensation | p. 337 |
Selection Direction | p. 337 |
Read-Out Direction | p. 337 |
Phase-Encoding Direction: Correction for Misregistration | p. 338 |
Flow Imaging | p. 339 |
Phase-Contrast Methods | p. 340 |
Phase-Contrast Angiography | p. 341 |
Quantitative Flow Based on Phase Contrast | p. 341 |
Modulus Contrast Methods | p. 344 |
Inflow Angiography | p. 344 |
Contrast-Enhanced MR Angiography | p. 346 |
MR Angiography Based on Magnetization Preparation | p. 349 |
Black-Blood Angiography | p. 354 |
Artifacts in Modulus Contrast Angiography | p. 355 |
Modulus-Contrast Quantitative Flow Measurements | p. 357 |
Perfusion | p. 358 |
MR Perfusion Imaging with Dynamic Bolus Studies | p. 358 |
Arterial Spin Labelling | p. 361 |
Diffusion | p. 364 |
Measurement with Diffusion Sensitization in One Direction | p. 366 |
Diffusion Imaging of the Brain | p. 368 |
Q-space Imaging | p. 371 |
Partitioning of the Magnetization into Configurations | p. 423 |
Introduction | p. 423 |
Configurations and Phase Diagrams | p. 423 |
Theory of Configurations | p. 429 |
Magnetization Expressed in Discrete Fourier Series | p. 430 |
Rotation | p. 431 |
Effect of Rotation and Precession on the Configurations | p. 434 |
Precession Matrix Including (Free) Diffusion | p. 436 |
Use of the Theory of Configurations to Describe the Examples in Sect. 8.1 | p. 437 |
Multiple Spin-Echo Example | p. 438 |
Eight-Ball Echo and Stimulated Echo Examples | p. 440 |
Multi-excitation Pulse Sequences | p. 441 |
SE-BURST Imaging | p. 443 |
Excitation Profile for BURST with Single-Phase Excitation | p. 446 |
Optimized BURST Excitation Using Phase Modulation | p. 448 |
Combination of BURST with TSE | p. 451 |
Gradient Recalled BURST Sequences | p. 452 |
QUEST and PREVIEW | p. 454 |
Theory of Configurations and Well-Known Fast-Imaging Sequences | p. 455 |
Application to TSE | p. 455 |
Application to FFE | p. 458 |
Rotation and Precession Matrices and RF Pulse Design | p. 462 |
Shinnar-Le Roux (SLR) Transformation | p. 463 |
The Inverse Shinnar-Le Roux Transformation (ISLR Transformation) | p. 465 |
Appendix | p. 473 |
References | p. 477 |
Index of Abbreviated Terms | p. 493 |
Index | p. 495 |
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