| Preface | p. ix |
| Acknowledgments | p. x |
| Basic electromagnetism | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Magnetic forces, poles and fields | p. 1 |
| Magnetic dipoles | p. 2 |
| Ampere's circuital law | p. 3 |
| Biot-Savart Law | p. 5 |
| Magnetic moments | p. 5 |
| Magnetic dipole energy | p. 6 |
| Magnetic flux | p. 7 |
| Magnetic induction | p. 7 |
| Classical Maxwell equations of electromagnetism | p. 8 |
| Inductance | p. 9 |
| Equation tables | p. 10 |
| Homework | p. 11 |
| References | p. 12 |
| Magnetic films | p. 13 |
| Origin of magnetization | p. 13 |
| Russell-Saunders coupling | p. 16 |
| jj coupling | p. 16 |
| Introduction of magnetic materials | p. 17 |
| Diamagnetism | p. 18 |
| Paramagnetism | p. 20 |
| Ferromagnetism | p. 23 |
| Antiferromagnetism | p. 28 |
| Ferrimagnetism | p. 30 |
| Ferromagnet/antiferromagnet bilayer structure | p. 30 |
| Intuitive picture in exchange bias | p. 31 |
| Positive exchange bias | p. 33 |
| Theories of exchange bias | p. 35 |
| AFM domain wall model | p. 36 |
| Random field model | p. 38 |
| Interlayer exchange coupling in ferromagnet/metal/ferromagnet multilayer | p. 39 |
| Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida interaction | p. 41 |
| Néel coupling | p. 44 |
| Micromagnetic simulation | p. 46 |
| Anisotropy energy | p. 46 |
| Exchange energy | p. 47 |
| Magnetostatic energy | p. 47 |
| Zeeman energy | p. 48 |
| Homework | p. 48 |
| References | p. 49 |
| Properties of patterned ferromagnetic films | p. 51 |
| Introduction | p. 51 |
| Edge poles and demagnetizing field | p. 51 |
| Demagnetizing factor of elliptic-shaped film | p. 52 |
| Edge curling | p. 54 |
| Magnetic domain | p. 55 |
| Transition region between domains: domain wall | p. 55 |
| Bloch wall and Néel wall | p. 57 |
| C-state, S-state and vortex | p. 58 |
| Magnetization behavior under an external field | p. 59 |
| Magnetization rotation in a full film | p. 60 |
| Magnetization rotation in a patterned film | p. 61 |
| Magnetization switching | p. 62 |
| Magnetization rotation and switching under a field in the easy-axis direction | p. 63 |
| Magnetization rotation and switching under two orthogonal applied fields | p. 64 |
| Magnetization behavior of a synthetic antiferromagnetic film stack | p. 68 |
| Homework | p. 71 |
| References | p. 72 |
| Magnetoresistance effects | p. 74 |
| Introduction | p. 74 |
| Anisotropic magnetoresistance | p. 74 |
| Giant magnetoresistance | p. 77 |
| Tunneling magnetoresistance | p. 79 |
| Giant tunneling magnetoresistance | p. 83 |
| Tunneling magnetoresistance in perpendicular magnetic tunneling junction | p. 88 |
| Homework | p. 89 |
| References | p. 89 |
| Field-write mode MRAMs | p. 91 |
| Introduction | p. 91 |
| Magnetic tunnel junction RAM cell | p. 93 |
| Cross-point array | p. 93 |
| 1T-1MTJ cell | p. 94 |
| Read signal | p. 95 |
| Sense reference cell | p. 96 |
| Sense amplifier | p. 98 |
| Write bit cell with magnetic field | p. 100 |
| Write-field conversion efficiency | p. 100 |
| Write-line cladding | p. 101 |
| Astroid-mode MRAM | p. 102 |
| Switching-energy barrier of Astroid-mode write | p. 102 |
| Write-error rate of a bit cell | p. 105 |
| Write soft error rate of an array of memory cells | p. 105 |
| Homework | p. 106 |
| Solution to the write disturbance problem | p. 106 |
| Toggle-mode MRAM | p. 109 |
| Toggle-mode cell | p. 109 |
| Switching of SAF free layer in toggle-mode write | p. 111 |
| Energy diagram of toggle operation | p. 112 |
| Write-current reduction | p. 116 |
| Characterization method of MRAM chip write performance | p. 116 |
| Thermally assisted field write | p. 118 |
| Multi-transistor cells for high-speed MRAM operation | p. 119 |
| References | p. 120 |
| Spin-torque-transfer mode MRAM | p. 122 |
| Introduction | p. 122 |
| Spin polarization of free electrons in ferromagnets | p. 122 |
| Interaction between polarized free electrons and magnetization-macroscopic model | p. 124 |
| Spin-torque transfer in a multilayer thin-film stack | p. 126 |
| Spin-transfer torque and switching threshold current density | p. 129 |
| Switching characteristics and threshold in magnetic tunnel junctions | p. 131 |
| Regimes of write pulse width | p. 132 |
| Switching probability in the thermal regime | p. 133 |
| Spin-torque-transfer switching under a magnetic field | p. 140 |
| Magnetic back-hopping | p. 141 |
| Reliability of tunnel barriers in MTJs | p. 143 |
| SPICE model of MTJs and memory cells | p. 144 |
| Memory cell operation | p. 146 |
| I-V characteristics of STT memory cell during write | p. 148 |
| Read and write voltage window of STT memory cell | p. 150 |
| Sense signal margin | p. 151 |
| Homework | p. 152 |
| Write-to-breakdown-voltage margin | p. 152 |
| Data retention and Eb extraction method | p. 153 |
| Thermal stability of STT memory chip | p. 154 |
| Homework | p. 155 |
| Write-current reduction | p. 156 |
| Nanocurrent-channel film-stack structure | p. 157 |
| Double-spin-filter structure | p. 159 |
| Perpendicular MTJ | p. 159 |
| Direct observation of magnetization reversal | p. 161 |
| References | p. 163 |
| Applications of MTJ-based technology | p. 165 |
| Introduction | p. 165 |
| MRAM market position | p. 165 |
| MTJ applications in CMOS SoC chips | p. 169 |
| Embedded memory in logic chips | p. 169 |
| Unbalanced MTJ flip-flop | p. 169 |
| Non-volatile multiplexer | p. 172 |
| MTJ data register | p. 172 |
| System-on-chip power reduction | p. 173 |
| Runtime reconfigurable electronic system | p. 175 |
| References | p. 175 |
| Unit conversion table for cgs and SI units | p. 176 |
| Dimensions of units of magnetism | p. 177 |
| Physical constants | p. 178 |
| Gaussian distribution and quantile plots | p. 179 |
| Weibull distribution | p. 181 |
| Time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) of magnetic tunnel junction devices | p. 183 |
| Binomial distribution and Poisson distribution | p. 185 |
| Defect density and the breakdown/TMR distribution of MTJ devices | p. 187 |
| Fe, Ni and Co material parameters | p. 189 |
| Soft error, hard fail and design margin | p. 190 |
| Index | p. 193 |
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