Lead Pollution

1 Introduction.- References.- 2 Lead in the atmosphere.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Sources of lead in air.- 2.1.1 Industrial emissions.- 2.2.2 Fossil fuel combustion.- 2.2.3 Vehicular emissions.- 2.3 Concentrations of lead in ambient air.- 2.3.1 Airborne lead arising from industrial emissions.- 2.3.2 Airborne lead arising from vehicular emissions.- 2.3.2.1 Inorganic lead in air.- 2.3.2.2 Organic lead in air.- 2.3.2.3 Vertical profiles of lead above a street.- 2.3.2.4 Correlation of lead levels with other pollutants.- 2.4 Particle size distributions.- 2.5 Chemical properties of atmospheric lead.- 2.5.1 Smelter emissions.- 2.5.2 Vehicular inorganic lead.- 2.5.3 Organic lead.- References.- 3 Lead in water.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Sources of lead in surface waters.- 3.2.1 Point sources.- 3.2.1.1 Industrial effluents.- 3.2.1.2 Sewage effluent.- 3.2.2 Diffuse sources.- 3.2.2.1 Urban areas.- 3.2.2.2 Rural areas.- 3.3 Concentrations of lead in water.- 3.3.1 Source waters.- 3.3.2 Receiving waters.- 3.3.3 Ground water.- 3.3.4 Sediments.- 3.3.5 Lead in drinking water.- 3.4 Chemistry of lead in water.- 3.4.1 Solubility control.- 3.4.2 Suspended sediments.- 3.4.3 Organic matter.- 3.4.4 Colloidal hydrous ferric and manganese oxides.- 3.4.5 Mixing with seawater.- 3.4.6 Schemes for the determination of physico-chemical speciation.- References.- 4 Lead in soils.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Sources of lead in soil.- 4.2.1 Parent materials.- 4.2.2 Dry deposition of airborne lead.- 4.2.3 Wet deposition of airborne lead.- 4.2.4 Disposal of sewage sludge to land.- 4.2.5 Other sources of lead contamination of soils.- 4.3 Concentrations of lead in soil.- 4.4 Uptake of soil lead by living organisms.- 4.5 Chemistry of lead in soils.- 4.6 Lead in street dusts.- References.- 5 Control of lead in air.- 5.1 Industrial sources of lead.- 5.1.1 Mining, smelting and refining of non-ferrous metals.- 5.1.1.1 Primary smelting of lead.- 5.1.1.2 Primary smelting of other metals.- 5.1.1.3 Secondary smelting of lead.- 5.1.1.4 Refining of lead.- 5.1.1.5 Production of ferrous metals and alloys.- 5.1.2 Industrial processes using lead.- 5.1.2.1 Production of lead oxides and pigments.- 5.1.2.2 Storage battery manufacture.- 5.1.2.3 Lead alkyl manufacture.- 5.2 Control of industrial emissions of lead.- 5.2.1 Control of industrial emissions of particulate lead to atmosphere.- 5.2.1.1 Fabric filters.- 5.2.1.2 Electrostatic precipitators.- 5.2.1.3 Inertial collectors.- 5.2.1.4 Wet scrubbers.- 5.2.1.5 Control systems used in the lead industry.- 5.2.2 Control of industrial emissions of organic lead to the atmosphere.- 5.2.3 Chimney heights and dispersion of pollution from a point source.- 5.3 Legislative regulations affecting industrial lead emissions.- 5.3.1 United Kingdom.- 5.3.2 United States.- 5.4 Control of lead emissions from motor vehicles.- 5.4.1 Reduction of the lead content of gasoline.- 5.4.2 Removal of particulate lead from vehicle exhaust gases.- 5.4.3 Lead pollution from waste oil disposal.- 5.5 Ambient air quality standard for lead.- 5.6 Control of lead within the workplace.- 5.6.1 Industrial hygiene standards for lead.- 5.6.2 Monitoring for industrial hygiene.- 5.6.3 Control of lead exposure of workers.- References.- 6 Control of lead discharges to water.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Water quality criteria and standards.- 6.2.1 Lead in drinking water.- 6.2.2 Lead in freshwaters.- 6.2.3 Sewage works final effluent.- 6.2.4 Industrial effluent.- 6.3 Uniform emission standards versus water quality objectives.- 6.3.1 Water quality objectives.- 6.3.2 Uniform emission standards.- 6.4 Control practices for lead discharges.- 6.4.1 Industrial effluent treatment.- 6.4.1.1 Precipitation.- 6.4.1.2 Activated carbon adsorption.- 6.4.1.3 Ion exchange.- 6.4.1.4 Other removal methods.- 6.4.1.5 Practical experience of lead removal.- 6.4.2 Sewage treatment.- 6.4.3 Stormwater control.- 6.4.3.1 Best management practices.- 6.4.3.2 Structural controls.- 6.4.4 Control of lead in drinking water.- References.- 7 Human exposure to lead and its effects.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Sources and intake of lead.- 7.2.1 Food.- 7.2.2 Drink.- 7.2.3 Typical daily lead intake from food and drink.- 7.2.4 Lead in air.- 7.2.5 Miscellaneous sources.- 7.3 Uptake of lead.- 7.3.1 Ingestion.- 7.3.2 Inhalation.- 7.3.2.1 Particulate lead.- 7.3.2.2 Tetraalkyllead vapour.- 7.4 Metabolism of lead.- 7.4.1 Inorganic lead.- 7.4.2 Tetraalkyllead.- 7.5 Blood leads.- 7.5.1 Population values.- 7.5.2 Relationship to source of intake.- 7.6 Biological and adverse health effects of exposure to lead.- 7.6.1 Bloodstream.- 7.6.2 Neurobehavioural effects.- 7.6.2.1 The Needleman study.- 7.6.2.2 Conclusions.- References.- 8 Chemical analysis of lead in the environment.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Chemical analysis of lead: available techniques.- 8.2.1 X-ray fluorescence (XRF).- 8.2.2 Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV).- 8.2.3 Colorimetric analysis.- 8.2.4 Atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS).- 8.3 Sampling and analysis of environmental media.- 8.3.1 Lead in air.- 8.3.2 Lead in water.- 8.3.3 Lead in soils and sediments.- 8.3.4 Biological materials.- 8.4 Contamination during lead analysis.- References.