Foreword xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xix
1 Review of Processing Techniques in Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Polymers and Composites 1
Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno, Vlastimil Kunc, and Brian Post
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Auxiliary Systems and Equipment Configurations for Enhanced Functionality 6
1.2.1 Material Drying, Conveyance, and Control Systems 6
1.2.2 Machining and Postprocessing 7
1.2.3 Multimaterials Printing 7
1.2.4 Pick-and-Place System 8
1.2.5 Heated Enclosures 9
1.2.6 Integration of Automated Fiber Placement 10
1.2.7 Coextrusion of Wires 11
1.2.8 Continuous Fiber Printing 12
1.2.9 Build Table 12
1.2.10 Improving Layer Adhesion 14
1.2.11 Slicing Software and Printing Algorithms 15
1.3 Cost Efficiency, Industrialization, and Market Adoption 18
1.3.1 Market Adoption 20
1.4 Choosing the Optimal Motion Platform for LFAM Systems 21
1.5 Conclusions 24
References 24
2 Polymer and Composite Materials for Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing 29
Daniel Moreno S¡nchez, Alberto Sanz de Le³n, Ahmed Arabi Hassen, Halil Tekinalp, and Sergio I. Molina
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Polymers Used in LFAM Systems 32
2.2.1 Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites 32
2.2.2 Thermoset Polymers and Reactive Chemistries 40
2.2.3 Sustainable and Bio-Based Materials 41
2.2.4 Speciality Polymers 47
2.2.4.1 Magnetic Materials 48
2.2.4.2 Dissolvable Materials 48
2.2.4.3 Foamed Materials 50
2.2.4.4 Nano-additivated Materials 50
2.3 Fundamental Materials Aspects for LFAM 51
2.3.1 Influence of the Rheological Behavior 52
2.3.2 Influence of Thermo-Mechanical Behavior 55
2.4 Recommendations for the Development of New Materials for LFAM 57
2.5 Conclusion 59
References 59
3 Characterization of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing 69
Alberto Sanz de Le³n and Mirko Maturi
3.1 Introduction 69
3.2 Rheology of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 70
3.3 Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 74
3.4 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Material Extrusion 79
3.5 Microstructural Analysis of Polymers and Polymer-Based Composites for Me 84
References 87
4 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Polymeric Materials. Molds and Dies âToolingâ 93
Daniel Moreno Nieto, Pedro Burgos Pintos, Mara de las Nieves Pizarro Ruiz, Sergio I. Molina, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen
4.1 Introduction 93
4.1.1 The Need for Molds and Dies 95
4.2 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing of Molds and Dies 96
4.3 Design and Operation Requirements for Mold and Dies 113
4.3.1 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding and Lay-Up Tooling 114
4.3.2 Trim Tools and Fixtures 114
4.3.3 Out-of-Autoclave Molds 114
4.3.4 Autoclave Molds 115
4.3.5 Compression Molding Molds 115
4.3.6 Stamping Dies 115
4.3.7 Concrete Casting Molds 116
4.4 Material Selection Criteria for Molds and Dies 116
4.5 Final Parts Materials 118
4.6 Large-Format AM Mold PostProcessing and Machining 120
4.6.1 Release Agents and Mold Coating 121
4.6.2 Machining Strategies 121
4.7 Conclusions 123
References 124
5 Direct Part Production Through Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 129
Eric MacDonald, Lonnie Love, Brian Post, Alex Roschli, Daniel Moreno S¡nchez, and Ahmed Arabi Hassen
5.1 Introduction 129
5.2 Main Application Sectors of Polymeric LFAM 130
5.2.1 Automotive 130
5.2.2 Aerospace 130
5.2.3 Architecture 131
5.2.4 Marine Applications 134
5.2.5 Energy Applications 137
5.2.6 Interior Design and Furniture 138
5.3 Design Considerations for Polymeric LFAM 141
5.3.1 Layer Configuration and Resolution of Printed Parts 141
5.3.2 Deposition Nozzle 142
5.3.3 Layer Time Dependence 143
5.3.4 Geometrical Design Considerations 143
5.3.4.1 Minimum Wall Thicknesses and Slim Elements 144
5.3.4.2 Overhang Areas and Bridges 145
5.3.4.3 Contour Configuration and Filling 147
5.3.5 Topological Optimization 148
5.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 150
References 150
6 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Process Review 155
Leonardo Santana and Jorge Lino Alves
6.1 Introduction 155
6.2 Contextualization 155
6.3 LFAM Technologies for Cement- and Clay-Based Materials Processing 158
6.3.1 LFAM Technologies Based on Powder Bed and Material Jetting 159
6.3.2 Extrusion-Based LFAM Technologies 163
6.3.3 Other LFAM Technologies 169
6.4 Final Consideration 170
References 171
7 Large-format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Materials Review 177
Jorge Lino Alves and Leonardo Santana
7.1 Introduction 177
7.2 Contextualization 177
7.3 Cement- and Clay-Based Materials for LFAM: A Review 180
7.3.1 Cement-Based Materials 180
7.3.2 Clay-Based Materials 187
7.4 Final Consideration 192
References 192
8 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clays: Characterization Methods 199
Ana Guerrero, Eloy Asensio, and Fernando Fern¡ndez
8.1 Introduction 199
8.2 Specific Requirements for 3D Printing Materials 203
8.2.1 Extrudability 203
8.2.2 Buildability 203
8.2.3 Mechanical Behavior 204
8.3 Tests for Evaluating the Specific Requirements of 3D Printing Materials 204
8.3.1 Flow Table 204
8.3.2 Slump Test 205
8.3.3 Squeezing Test 206
8.3.4 V-Funnel Test 207
8.3.5 Open Time 208
8.3.6 Rheometer Testing 208
8.3.7 Density 210
8.3.8 Pastry Bag and Caulking Gun 210
8.3.9 Setting Time 211
8.3.10 Shape Retention Test 214
8.3.11 Visual Inspection 215
8.3.12 Hardened Mechanical Properties 218
8.4 Conclusions 221
References 221
9 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cementitious and Geo Materials. General Considerations, Drivers, and Context 227
Mohammed Alnaggar
9.1 Why Large Format Additive Manufacturing in Construction 227
9.1.1 LFAM Copes with the Custom Nature of Construction Projects 227
9.1.2 Social Drivers for Construction LFAM 228
9.1.3 Economic Drivers for Construction LFAM 229
9.1.4 Environmental Impacts of Construction LFAM 229
9.2 Components of a Construction LFAM System 229
9.2.1 Foundation 230
9.2.2 Material 230
9.2.3 Material Delivery System 232
9.2.4 Reinforcement 232
9.2.5 Motion System 234
9.2.5.1 Gantry Motion Systems 235
9.2.5.2 Robotic Motion Systems 236
9.2.5.3 Cable-Driven Motion Systems 236
9.2.6 Process Control Software 237
9.3 Construction LFAM Process Steps 237
9.3.1 Structural Design 237
9.3.2 Acquiring a Construction Permit 239
9.3.3 Site Preparation 239
9.3.4 Construction LFAM Operation 239
9.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Assurance 240
9.3.6 Equipment Removal, Structure Curing, and Site Restoration 241
9.3.7 Building Finishing Up 241
9.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 242
References 242
10 Large Format Additive Manufacturing with Cement and Clay Applications 245
Jo£o Teixeira, Manuel Jesus, Elis Ribeiro, B¡rbara Rangel, Jorge Lino Alves, and Lino Maia
10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 Applications of LFAM with Cement-Based Materials 246
10.2.1 Artificial Reefs 246
10.2.2 Urban Furniture 247
10.2.3 Buildings 248
10.2.3.1 In Situ Applications 248
10.2.3.2 Off-Site Applications 248
10.3 Applications of LFAM with Clay-Based Materials 250
10.3.1 Art and Design 251
10.3.2 Structures 251
10.4 Exploring the Design Possibilities of LFAM with Cement and Clay for Facade Applications 252
10.5 Opportunities 255
10.6 Challenges 258
10.7 A Showcase of LFAM Capabilities: Panel Concept 259
10.7.1 Project Definition 259
10.7.2 Design for LFAM 259
10.7.3 3D Print Test and Validation 261
10.8 Conclusions 264
Acknowledgments 264
References 264
11 LFAM with Metallic Materialsâ"Technology Review 269
E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, and A. Su¡rez
11.1 Introduction 269
11.2 AM Technology Classification 271
11.3 LFAM with Metallic Material 274
11.4 Ded 275
11.4.1 L-ded 278
11.4.1.1 Laser Powder-Based DED 279
11.4.1.2 Laser Wire Based-DED 280
11.4.2 Eb-ded 281
11.4.3 Arc-DED 282
11.5 Cold Spray Additive Manufacturing 285
11.6 Friction-Based AM 287
11.7 Metallic LFAM Solutions 288
References 290
12 Large-Format Additive Manufacturing with Metallic Materials â" Materials Review 301
Yukinori Yamamoto, Peeyush Nandwana, Vanshika Singh, Wei Tang, Rangasayee Kannan, and Saket Thapliyal
12.1 Introduction 301
12.2 Deposition Process 301
12.2.1 Solidification 303
12.2.2 As-deposited Microstructure 306
12.2.3 Postprocess Heat Treatment 309
12.2.3.1 Ferrous Alloys 311
12.2.3.2 Nonferrous Materials 315
12.3 Mechanical Properties 317
12.3.1 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties 317
12.3.2 High-Temperature Mechanical Properties 318
12.3.3 Cryogenic Mechanical Properties 322
12.4 Environmental Compatibility 322
12.4.1 Corrosion Behavior 324
12.4.2 Oxidation Resistance 326
12.5 Combined Technology: Hybrid 327
12.5.1 Role of Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of 316L Fabricated Using Hybrid Manufacturing 331
12.5.2 Role of Humidity of Build Chamber During Hybrid Manufacturing on Part Performance 334
12.5.3 Utilizing the Machining Component of Hybrid Manufacturing for Localized Microstructure Control 336
12.6 Conclusions 341
References 341
13 LFAM with Metallic Materials: Structure, Microstructure, and Characterization 353
Luis Segovia-Guerrero, Nuria Balad©s, and David L. Sales
13.1 Introduction 353
13.2 Porosity 355
13.2.1 Porosity Characterization 360
13.3 Phases 361
13.4 Grain Size and Shape 364
13.4.1 Characterization Techniques 370
13.5 Residual Stress 371
13.5.1 Characterization Methods of Residual Stress 373
13.6 Chemical Composition 377
13.7 Dimensional and Tolerance Control in LFAM 379
13.8 Conclusion 383
References 384
14 LFAM with Metallic Materialsâ"Applications 393
F. Veiga, E. Villabona, A. Su¡rez, P. Rivero, and E. Aldalur
14.1 Introduction 393
14.2 Industrial Applications of LFAM with Metallic Materials 394
14.2.1 Aerospace 394
14.2.2 Automotive Industry 397
14.2.3 Construction Industry 399
14.2.4 Railways 401
14.2.5 Marine 402
14.2.6 Oil and Gas 406
14.2.7 Artistic and Creative Applications 409
14.2.8 Molds 410
14.2.9 Sports Equipment 412
14.2.10 Other Industrial Applications 413
14.3 Advancements in the Application of AI, Design, and Material Innovation to LFAM 416
14.3.1 Integration of AI 416
14.3.2 Advanced Materials and Their Impact 420
14.3.3 New Developments in Design for LFAM 420
14.4 Conclusion and Future Trends 424
References 425
15 Modeling and Simulation of LFAM: Polymers, Metals, and Cements and Clays, a Review 439
Yousub Lee, Komal Chawla, Mohammed Alnaggar, Wen Dong, and Seokpum Kim
15.1 Metal Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 439
15.1.1 Advancing Metal Manufacturing: Traditional Castings to Additive Manufacturing for Large-Scale Components 439
15.1.2 Digital Design for Controlling Distortion and Residual Stress 440
15.1.2.1 Tool Path Planning and Thermal Sensors 440
15.1.2.2 Distortion and Interactive Control 444
15.1.2.3 Manipulation of Residual Stress Using Phase Transformation 446
15.1.2.4 Distortion and Residual Stresses in Hybrid Additive and Subtractive Manufacturing 449
15.1.3 Challenges and Concluding Remarks 451
15.2 Polymer Large-Format Additive Manufacturing 452
15.2.1 Advancements and Challenges in Large-Scale Polymer Additive Manufacturing Technology 452
15.2.2 Modeling and Simulation of Manufacturing Process 454
15.2.2.1 Predict the Temperature History, Deformation, and Residual Stresses 455
15.2.2.2 Optimize the Layer Deposition Time 456
15.2.2.3 Predict the Fiber Orientation 458
15.2.2.4 Multiscale Numerical Modeling for Digital Twin 460
15.2.2.5 Challenges and Opportunities 462
15.2.2.6 Conclusions 462
15.3 Cementitious and Geomaterial Large-Scale Additive Manufacturing 463
15.3.1 Modeling of Different LFAM Stages 463
15.3.2 Modeling of Different Chemistry, Physics, and Mechanics Involved in Lfam 466
15.3.3 Data and Information Aspects in Modeling LFAM of Cementitious Materials 467
15.3.4 Concluding Remark and Future Direction 467
Acknowledgements 468
References 468
Index 475
