| Introduction and Overview | |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| WEEE - The Scale of the Problem | p. 4 |
| Legislative Influences on Electronics Recycling | p. 4 |
| Producer Responsibility Legislation | p. 4 |
| The WEEE Directive | p. 6 |
| The RoHS Directive | p. 7 |
| Other Examples of Legislation | p. 8 |
| Treatment Options for WEEE | p. 10 |
| Material Composition of WEEE | p. 11 |
| Socio-economic Factors | p. 13 |
| Logistics of WEEE | p. 15 |
| WEEE - the International Perspective | p. 18 |
| European Perspective | p. 18 |
| Japan | p. 20 |
| Barriers to Recycling of WEEE | p. 24 |
| The Recycling Hierarchy and Markets for Recyclate | p. 25 |
| WEEE Health and Safety Implications | p. 30 |
| Future Factors That May Influence Electronic Waste Management | p. 35 |
| Summary and Conclusions | p. 37 |
| References and Further Reading | p. 37 |
| Materials Used in Manufacturing Electrical and Electronic Products | |
| Perspective | p. 40 |
| Impact of Legislation on Materials Used in Electronics | p. 40 |
| Overview | p. 40 |
| The RoHS Directive and Proscribed Materials | p. 42 |
| Where do RoHS Proscribed Materials Occur? | p. 44 |
| Lead | p. 44 |
| Brominated Flame Retardants | p. 44 |
| Cadmium, Mercury and Hexavalent Chromium | p. 45 |
| Soldering and the Move to Lead-free Assembly | p. 46 |
| Introduction | p. 46 |
| Lead-free Solder Choices | p. 46 |
| Printed Circuit Board Materials | p. 47 |
| Introduction | p. 47 |
| PCB Materials | p. 48 |
| Provision of Flame Retardancy in PCBs | p. 50 |
| Non-ferrous and Precious Metals | p. 52 |
| Encapsulants of Electronic Components | p. 53 |
| Indium Tin Oxide and LCD Screens | p. 54 |
| Polymeric Materials in Enclosures, Casings and Panels | p. 55 |
| Product-related Plastic Content | p. 55 |
| WEEE Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 59 |
| Polycarbonate (PC) | p. 59 |
| ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) | p. 61 |
| High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) | p. 62 |
| Polyphenyleneoxide (PPO) | p. 62 |
| PC/ABS Blends | p. 62 |
| Flame Retardants in Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 63 |
| Materials Composition of WEEE | p. 65 |
| Introduction | p. 65 |
| Mobile Phones | p. 66 |
| Televisions | p. 68 |
| Washing Machines | p. 71 |
| Conclusions | p. 72 |
| References | p. 73 |
| Dumping, Burning and Landfill | |
| Introduction | p. 75 |
| England: Site Inputs 2002-2003 | p. 77 |
| Waste Inputs to Different Management Options in 2005 | p. 77 |
| Landfill | p. 77 |
| Historical | p. 77 |
| Pollution from Landfills | p. 79 |
| Landfill Gas | p. 79 |
| Leachate | p. 79 |
| Landfill-site Construction | p. 80 |
| Burning | p. 82 |
| Historical | p. 82 |
| Incineration | p. 82 |
| Mass Burn | p. 82 |
| Energy Recovery/Energy from Waste (EFW) | p. 83 |
| Advanced Thermal Processing | p. 84 |
| Pollution from Incineration | p. 85 |
| Legislation Summary | p. 88 |
| Current UK Legislation | p. 88 |
| References | p. 89 |
| Recycling and Recovery | |
| Introduction | p. 91 |
| Separation and Sorting | p. 92 |
| Treatment | p. 92 |
| Mixed WEEE | p. 93 |
| Refrigeration Equipment | p. 95 |
| Cathode Ray Tubes | p. 96 |
| Individual Processes | p. 97 |
| Outputs and Markets | p. 102 |
| Metals | p. 103 |
| Glass | p. 103 |
| Plastics | p. 103 |
| Emerging Technologies | p. 104 |
| Separation | p. 104 |
| Thermal Treatments | p. 105 |
| Hydrometallurgical Extraction | p. 106 |
| Sensing Technologies | p. 106 |
| Plastics to Liquid Fuel | p. 107 |
| Plastics Containing Brominated Flame Retardents | p. 107 |
| Acknowledgements | p. 108 |
| References | p. 108 |
| Integrated Approach to e-Waste Recycling | |
| Introduction | p. 111 |
| Recycling and Recovery Technologies | p. 113 |
| Sorting/Disassembly | p. 114 |
| Crushing/Diminution | p. 115 |
| Separation | p. 115 |
| Emerging Recycling and Recovery Technologies | p. 117 |
| Automated Disassembly | p. 117 |
| Comminution | p. 117 |
| Separation | p. 118 |
| Thermal Treatments | p. 119 |
| Hydrometallurgical Extraction | p. 119 |
| Dry Capture Technologies | p. 119 |
| Biotechnological Capture | p. 119 |
| Sensing Technologies | p. 120 |
| Design for Recycling and Inverse Manufacturing | p. 120 |
| Printed Circuit Boards | p. 121 |
| Overview | p. 121 |
| Recycling | p. 124 |
| Current Disposal Hierarchy | p. 126 |
| Economics of Recycling | p. 127 |
| Future Developments | p. 128 |
| Characteristics of PCB Scrap | p. 129 |
| Emerging Technologies | p. 132 |
| Sector-based Eco-design | p. 141 |
| Disassembly | p. 142 |
| Fasteners | p. 143 |
| RFIDs (Radio Frequency Identification Tags) | p. 145 |
| Active Disassembly | p. 146 |
| Design Methodology and Resource Efficiency | p. 147 |
| Recycling | p. 147 |
| Constraints on Materials Selection | p. 148 |
| Eco-design Guidelines for Manufacturing | p. 150 |
| References | p. 160 |
| European Recycling Platform (ERP): a Pan-European Solution to WEEE Compliance | |
| Brief Introduction to WEEE | p. 161 |
| The WEEE Directive | p. 161 |
| Producer Responsibility | p. 162 |
| Household and Non-household WEEE | p. 162 |
| Marking EEE Products | p. 163 |
| WEEE Collection Points | p. 164 |
| Product Categories and Waste Streams | p. 164 |
| Producer Compliance Schemes | p. 164 |
| Variations in National WEEE Laws | p. 164 |
| Introduction to European Recycling Platform (ERP) | p. 165 |
| European Recycling Platform | p. 165 |
| Founder Members | p. 165 |
| Timeline | p. 165 |
| Founding Principles | p. 166 |
| Structure | p. 166 |
| Scope of services | p. 168 |
| The Operational Model - General Contractor Approach | p. 168 |
| Euro PLUS | p. 170 |
| ERP in Operation | p. 170 |
| Country Summaries | p. 170 |
| Key Performance Indicators | p. 170 |
| Members | p. 170 |
| ERP - Beyond Compliance | p. 172 |
| Implementation of Individual Producer Responsibility (IPR) | p. 172 |
| ERP UK WEEE Survey | p. 173 |
| Summary | p. 175 |
| Key Achievements | p. 175 |
| Final Thoughts: Interviews with Two Founding Members | p. 177 |
| References | p. 179 |
| Liquid Crystal Displays: from Devices to Recycling | |
| Introduction | p. 180 |
| Overview of Liquid Crystals | p. 183 |
| Definition and Classification of Liquid Crystals | p. 184 |
| Molecular and Chemical Architecture of Liquid Crystals | p. 185 |
| The Mesophase: Types of Intermediate State of Matter | p. 186 |
| Physical Properties of Liquid Crystals and Material Requirements | p. 188 |
| Overview of Liquid Crystal Displays Based on Nematic Mesophase | p. 190 |
| Basic LCD Operating Principles | p. 190 |
| Types of Electro-optic LCD Devices | p. 191 |
| LCD Manufacturing Process | p. 195 |
| Environmental Legislation and Lifecycle Analysis | p. 197 |
| The WEEE Directive and LCDs | p. 197 |
| RoHS and REACH | p. 199 |
| Far East Environmental Measures | p. 199 |
| Lifecycle Analysis | p. 199 |
| Potentially Hazardous Constituents: Toxicity of LCD Constituents | p. 201 |
| Toxicity of Mercury and Backlighting | p. 201 |
| Toxicity of Liquid-crystal Mixture | p. 203 |
| Demanufacture and Recycling | p. 204 |
| Future Outlook | p. 208 |
| LCD Panels | p. 208 |
| Smart Disassembly | p. 209 |
| Legislation | p. 209 |
| References | p. 209 |
| The Role of Collective versus Individual Producer Responsibility in e-Waste Management: Key Learnings from Around the World | |
| Introduction | p. 212 |
| E-waste and Its Environmental Impacts | p. 212 |
| Background to Producer Responsibility | p. 213 |
| Defining Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility | p. 215 |
| The WEEE Directive in Europe | p. 216 |
| The WEEE Directive's Approach to Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility | p. 216 |
| Implementation of Individual and Collective Producer Responsibility in the EU | p. 218 |
| ICT Milieu, The Netherlands | p. 219 |
| E-waste Laws and Voluntary Agreements in Other Countries | p. 220 |
| Japanese Electronics Take-back Directive | p. 220 |
| Product Take-back in the USA | p. 221 |
| Product Stewardship in Australia | p. 222 |
| Discussion | p. 223 |
| Competition in E-Waste Management | p. 223 |
| Collective Producer Responsibility: Benefits and Disadvantages | p. 225 |
| Individual Producer Responsibility: Benefits and Disadvantages | p. 225 |
| Evaluating Collective versus Individual Producer Responsibility | p. 227 |
| Recommendations to Implement IPR | p. 230 |
| Recommendation #1: Ensure Article 8.2 of the WEEE Directive is Fully Transposed | p. 230 |
| Recommendation #2: Adopt a Phased Approach to IPR | p. 231 |
| Recommendation #3: Member States to Implement IPR | p. 232 |
| Conclusions | p. 233 |
| References | p. 234 |
| Rapid Assessment of Electronics Enclosure Plastics | |
| Introduction | p. 236 |
| Instrumental Techniques | p. 237 |
| Visible-NIR Spectroscopy of Engineering Thermoplastics | p. 239 |
| Discrimination of Enclosure Materials | p. 241 |
| Base Polymer Identification | p. 243 |
| Selected Thermoplastics for Processing | p. 244 |
| Controlled Degradation Experiments | p. 245 |
| Analysis of Processed Thermoplastics | p. 245 |
| Analysis of Plastics Containing Flame-retardant Additives | p. 248 |
| Visible-NIR Spectroscopy | p. 249 |
| X-Ray Fluorescence and Optical Emission Spectroscopy | p. 251 |
| Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy | p. 253 |
| Conclusions | p. 255 |
| References | p. 256 |
| Subject Index | p. 258 |
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