Formal Methods, Informally

How to Write Programs That Work

By: Carroll Morgan

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eText | 19 February 2026

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Learn to program more effectively, faster, with better results... and enjoy both the learning experience and the benefits it ultimately brings. While this undergraduate-level textbook is motivated by formal methods, so encouraging habits that lead to correct and concise computer programs, its informal presentation sidesteps any rigid reliance on formal logic which programmers are sometimes led to believe is required. Instead, a straightforward and intuitive use of simple 'What's true here?' comments encourages precision of thought without prescription of notation. Drawing on decades of the author's experience in teaching/industry, the text's careful presentation concentrates on key principles of structuring and reasoning about programs, applying them first to small, understandable algorithms. Then students can concentrate on turning those reliably into their corresponding - and correct - program source codes. The text includes over 200 exercises, for many of which full solutions are provided. A set of all solutions is available for instructors' use.