Flat-Panel Displays and CRTs

1. Introduction.- 1.1 History of Electronics for Displays.- 1.2 Electronic Displays.- 1.2.1 Introduction.- 1.2.2 Display Categories.- 1.2.3 Display Technique.- 1.2.4 Font.- 1.2.5 The CRT Challenge.- 1.2.6 Definition of Flat-Panel Displays.- 1.2.7 Flat CRTs.- 1.3 Display Classifications.- 1.3.1 Flat-Panel Display Classifications.- 1.4 Display Nomenclature.- 1.4.1 Electroluminescence vs. Luminescence.- 1.4.2 Gas Discharge, or Plasma Panel.- 1.4.3 Cathodoluminescence vs. Vacuum Fluorescence.- 1.5 Classification Nomenclature.- 1.6 Picture Element or Pixel.- 1.7 Display Array.- 1.7.1 Duty Factor.- 1.7.2 Pixel Contrast Ratio.- 1.8 Addressing.- 1.8.1 Direct Addressing.- 1.8.2 Scan Addressing.- 1.8.3 Grid Addressing.- 1.8.4 Shift Addressing.- 1.8.5 Matrix Addressing.- 1.9 Display Device Development.- 1.10 Multidiscipline.- 1.11 Technology Impetus.- 1.12 Conclusion.- References.- 2. System Requirements.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 System Classification.- 2.3 Display Installation Classification.- 2.4 Display Functional Classification.- 2.5 Systems Constraints.- 2.5.1 Performance.- 2.5.2 System Design.- 2.5.3 Environmental Testing.- 2.5.4 Standards.- 2.6 Display Subsystems.- 2.6.1 Faceplate.- Structural Shield.- Radiation Shield.- Electromagnetic Interference Shield.- First-Surface Etching.- Antireflective Coating.- Filtering.- Optical Focusing.- 2.6.2 Bezel.- 2.6.3 Interactors.- 2.6.4 Electronics.- 2.7 Transillumination.- 2.8 Photometry.- 2.8.1 Photometric Measurements.- 2.8.2 Photometric Units.- References.- 3. The Visual System: Capabilities and Limitations.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Anatomy of the Visual System.- 3.2.1 Overall Organization.- 3.2.2 Rod and Cone Characteristics.- 3.3 Spatial Vision.- 3.4 Temporal Vision.- 3.4.1 Temporal CTF.- 3.4.2 Other Temporal Psychophysical Data.- 3.5 Color Vision.- 3.5.1 Color Systems and Measurement.- 3.5.2 The Chromatic CTF.- 3.6 Summary.- References.- 4. Image Quality: Measures and Visual Performance.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.1.1 Image Measurement and Specification.- 4.1.2 Physical Measures of Image Quality.- 4.1.3 Behaviorally Validated Measures of Image Quality.- 4.2 The Modulation Transfer Function.- 4.2.1 Concept and Measurement.- 4.2.2 Relation to Vision.- 4.2.3 Design Utility of the MTF.- 4.3 Pixel Error Measures.- 4.3.1 Measurement of Pixel Errors.- 4.3.2 Relation to Vision.- 4.4 MTF-Based Measures of Image Quality.- 4.4.1 Equivalent Passband, Ne.- 4.4.2 Strehl Intensity Ratio.- 4.4.3 Modulation Transfer Function Area (MTFA).- 4.4.4 Gray Shade Frequency Product (GSFP).- 4.4.5 Integrated Contrast Sensitivity (ICS).- 4.4.6 Visual Capacity (VC).- 4.4.7 Discriminate Difference Diagrams (DDD).- 4.4.8 Displayed Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNRD).- 4.4.9 Visual Efficiency (VE).- 4.4.10 Information Content (IC).- 4.4.11 Summary of MTF-Based Metrics.- 4.5 Pixel Error Measures of Image Quality.- 4.5.1 Normalized Mean Square Error (MSE).- 4.5.2 Point Squared Error (PSE).- 4.5.3 Perceptual MSE (PMSE).- 4.5.4 Image Fidelity (IF).- 4.5.5 Structural Content (SC).- 4.5.6 Correlational Quality (CQ).- 4.6 An Empirical Image Quality Model.- 4.7 Problems in Image Quality Measurement.- 4.7.1 Lines, Line Pairs, and TV Lines.- 4.7.2 The Measurement System.- 4.7.3 What to Measure and Calculate.- 4.7.4 Test Pattern Selection.- 4.8 Concepts Related to Image Quality.- 4.8.1 Uniformity: Large and Small Area.- 4.8.2 Shades of Gray.- 4.8.3 Resolution.- References.- 5. Flat-Panel Display Design Issues.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Power Efficiency.- 5.2.1 Emittersand Nonemitters.- 5.2.2 Ambient Illumination.- 5.2.3 Light Losses.- 5.2.4 Power Loss.- 5.2.5 Display System Efficiency Diagram.- 5.2.6 Quantum Efficiency.- 5.2.7 Material Efficiency.- 5.2.8 Estimating Display Performance.- 5.3 Addressability.- 5.3.1 Direct Addressing.- 5.3.2 Scan Addressing.- 5.3.3 Grid Addressing.- 5.3.4 Shift-Addressing Technique.- 5.3.5 Matrix Addressing.- One-Third-Select.- Cross-Coupling-Select.- Voltage Reversal.- Four-Case Model.- 5.3.6 Intrinsic Matrix Addressing.- DiodeNonlinearity.- Hysteresis.- Threshold.- 5.3.7 Extrinsic Matrix Addressing.- 5.4 Duty Factor.- 5.4.1 Pixel Dwell Time.- 5.4.2 Summary of Dwell Time Effects.- 5.5 Gray Scale.- 5.6 Color.- 5.7 Cost.- References for Section 5.1-5.7.- 5.8 Intrinsic Electronic Display Drive.- 5.8.1 IC Technology for High-Voltage Display Drivers, by Tom Engibous.- References for Section 5.8.- 5.9 Extrinsic Electronic Display Addressing.- 5.9.1 Fabrication and Application of Thin-Film Transistors to Displays, by L. E. Tannas, Jr..- The TFT Stack.- Counterelectrode Stack.- Electroluminescent (EL) Stack.- Addressing Stack.- Display.- References for Section 5.9.1.- 5.9.2 Extrinsic Matrix Addressing with Silicon Thin-Film Transistor Arrays, by A. I. Lakatos.- Structures of Si TFT.- Fabrication of Si TFT.- Performance of Si TFT.- Arrays of Si TFT.- Summary.- References for Section 5.9.2.- 6. The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Historical Origins of the CRT.- 6.3 Basic CRT Design and Operation.- 6.3.1 Monochrome CRTs.- 6.3.2 Color CRTs.- Mask Techniques.- Beam Index Tubes.- Penetration Phosphors.- Current-Sensitive Phosphors.- Projection Color TV.- 6.4 Electron-Optic Regions of the CRT.- 6.4.1 The Beam-Forming Region.- Crossover vs. Laminar Flow.- Oxide vs. Dispenser Cathode.- Triode vs. Tetrode Structure.- 6.4.2 The Focusing Region.- 6.4.3 The Deflection Region.- 6.4.4 The Drift Region.- 6.5 Limitations on Electron-Gun Performance.- 6.5.1 Optical Analog of the Electron Gun.- 6.5.2 Magnification.- 6.5.3 Cathode Loading.- 6.5.4 Lens Aberrations.- 6.5.5 Thermal Effects.- 6.5.6 Space Charge.- 6.5.7 Final Spot Size.- 6.6 The Viewing System.- 6.6.1 Cathodoluminescence.- 6.6.2 Phosphors.- 6.7 CRT Resolution and Contrast.- 6.7.1 Defining CRT Resolution.- 6.7.2 Contrast and Gray Scale in the CRT.- 6.8 The Life of the CRT.- 6.8.1 Cathode Life.- 6.8.2 Phosphor Life.- 6.9 Applications and Types of CRTs.- 6.9.1 CRT Applications.- 6.9.2 Types of CRTs.- 6.9.3 Examples of High-Performance CRTs.- Three-Inch Round CRT.- Four-Inch Square CRT.- 6.10 Driving the CRT.- 6.10.1 CRT Circuits.- 6.10.2 CRT Grid Drive Characteristics.- 6.11 Overview of CRT Performance.- Resolution.- Luminance.- Contrast Ratio, Detail.- Contract Ratio, Range.- Shades of Gray (0 Ambient).- Shades of Gray (High Ambients).- Phosphor Luminous Efficiency.- Tube Luminous Efficiency.- System Luminous Efficiency.- Depth Diagonal Ratio.- Size.- Modulation.- Storage.- Duty Cycle.- Spot Shape.- Life.- Cost Per Resolution Element.- Bandwidth.- Reference.- 7. Flat Cathode-Ray Tube Display.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Motivation and Goals.- 7.3 History.- 7.4 Functional and Technical Discriptions.- 7.5 Cathodes for the Flat CRTs.- 7.5.1 Single-Point Cathode.- 7.5.2 Large-Area Thermionic-Oxide-Coated Cathodes.- Large-Area-Low-Temperature Cathode.- Screen Mesh Cathode.- Button Matrix.- Multifilament Flood Gun.- 7.5.3 Large-Area Nonthermionic Cathodes.- Individual Cathode Per Resolution Element.- Ion Feedback Cathode.- Photocathodes.- Gas-Discharge Cathodes.- Radioactive Sources.- 7.5.4 Cathode Summary.- 7.6 Beam Positioning and Modulation Techniques.- 7.6.1 Deflected-Beam Approaches.- XY Electrostatic Deflection Grids.- X Electrostatic, Y Magnetic.- X Electrostatic Deflection, Y Self-Scan.- Independent Beam Addressing of XY Emitter.- Electron-Beam Guides with XY Electrostatic Deflection.- X Electrostatic Deflection, Y Mechanical.- 7.6.2 Matrix-Addressing Approaches.- XY Matrix Addressing of a Discrete Element Cathode.- X-Axis Cathode Control, Y-Axis Control Grid.- X and Y Axis Control in Separate Control Grids.- XYZ Grid Addressing.- X-Axis Control of the Phosphor, Y-Axis Control Grid.- Single Control Grid with Active Matrix.- 7.6.3 Modulation Techniques.- Amplitude Modulation.- Pulse-Width Modulation.- Combined Pulse-Width and Amplitude Modulation.- 7.6.4 Beam Positioning and Modulation Summary.- 7.7 Brightness-Enhancement Techniques.- 7.7.1 Multiple-Beam Addressing.- 7.7.2 Electron Multipliers.- Electron Multiplication within Beam-Positioning Elements.- Separate Electron Multipliers.- 7.7.3 Internal-Storage Techniques.- 7.8 Phosphor Screens.- 7.9 Vacuum Envelope and Processing Techniques.- 7.9.1 Vacuum Envelope.- Open-Structure Envelope.- Flat-Face Self-Supporting Envelope.- 7.9.2 Processing.- 7.10 Technical Achievements.- 7.10.1 Aiken Tube and Derivatives.- 7.10.2 Banana Tube.- 7.10.3 Gabor Tube.- 7.10.4 Philips Channel Electron Multiplier CRT.- 7.10.5 Battelle Flat CRT.- 7.10.6 Digisplay.- 7.10.7 Vacuum Fluorescence.- 7.10.8 RCA Feedback and Electron Guide Displays.- 7.10.9 Zenith Ion Feedback Display.- 7.10.10 Arizona State Active Matrix Display.- 7.10.11 Stanford Research Institute Field Emission Display.- 7.10.12 Hybrid Plasma CRT.- 7.11 Summary.- References.- 8. Electroluminescent Displays.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.1.1 Overview.- 8.1.2 Configuration Definitions.- 8.2 History.- 8.2.1 Discovery of Electroluminescence in Polycrystalline Films.- 8.2.2 First EL Display Activity.- 8.2.3 Thin-Film EL.- 8.2.4 DC Powder EL.- 8.2.5 TFT Extrinsic EL Drive.- 8.2.6 DMOS Intrinsic EL Drive I.- 8.3 Theory of Operation.- 8.3.1 Status of Theory.- 8.3.2 Difference in Observed Light Generation Mechanisms.- 8.4 AC Thin-Film EL.- 8.4.1 Physical Structure.- 8.4.2 Performance.- 8.4.3 Discrimination Ratio.- 8.4.4 Panel Size.- 8.4.5 Temperature Dependence.- 8.4.6 Life, Aging, and Burn-In.- 8.4.7 Light-Generating Process Model I.- 8.4.8 Fabrication Techniques for AC Thin-Film EL.- Vapor Deposition and Sputtering.- Atomic Layer Epitaxy (ALE).- Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD).- 8.4.9 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) of EL Thin Films.- Electron-Beam Evaporation.- Atomic Layer Epitaxy (ALE).- Sputtered EL Films.- Correlation of Microstructure to Electro-Optical Properties.- 8.4.10 Electrode Definition.- 8.4.11 Memory Mode.- 8.4.12 Acoustical Noise from AC Thin-Film EL Panels.- 8.4.13 Failure Modes.- Basic Configuration.- Modes of Failure.- Electrical Breakdown I.- Thin-Film Delamination.- Field-Induced Chemical Reactions.- 8.4.14 Color.- 8.5 AC Powder EL.- 8.5.1 Fabrication Technique.- 8.5.2 Applications.- 8.5.3 Mechanism of Light Generation.- 8.5.4 Life and Aging.- 8.5.5 Color in AC Powder EL Lamps.- 8.6 DC Powder EL.- 8.6.1 Fabrication.- 8.6.2 Theory of Opera tion.- 8.6.3 Aging and Failure Mechanisms.- 8.6.4 Applications.- 8.6.5 Colors with DC Powder El Phosphors.- 8.7 DC Thin-Film EL.- 8.8 Luminous Efficiency.- 8.9 Conclusion 281 References.- 9. Light-Emitting Diode Displays.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 History of LED Display Devices.- 9.3 Basic LED Technology.- 9.3.1 Radiative and Nonradiative Recombination.- 9.3.2 Direct-Indirect Transition.- 9.3.3 Nitrogen Doping in GaAs1?x Px.- 9.3.4 GaAlAs.- 9.3.5 GaP:Zn, O.- 9.3.6 Optical Coupling Efficiency.- 9.4 LED Performance-State of the Art.- 9.4.1 Performance Characteristics of Different Materials Technologies.- Red-Emitting Devices.- Green-Emitting Devices.- Yellow-Emitting Devices.- Blue-Emitting Devices.- Variable-Hue Devices.- 9.4.2 Future Performance Improvement.- 9.5 LED Display Devices.- 9.5.1 Overview.- 9.5.2 Discrete Emitter.- 9.5.3 Bar-of-Light Displays.- 9.5.4 Numeric Displays.- 9.5.5 Alphanumeric Displays.- 9.5.6 Numeric and Alpha numeric Displays with On-Board Integrated Circuits.- 9.5.7 Large-Area x-y Addressable LED Arrays.- 9.5.8 Large-Area Displays Using a Combination of LED Products.- 9.6 LED Performance Parameters.- 9.7 Materials and Processes.- 9.7.1 Substrate Preparation.- 9.7.2 Epitaxial Deposition.- 9.7.3 Wafer Fabrication.- 9.8 Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 10. Plasma Displays.- 10.1 Introduction.- A: Very Strong Nonlinearity.- B: Memory.- C: Discharge Switching.- D: Long Lifetime.- E: Good Brightness and Luminous Display.- F: Low-Cost Materials-Simple Structure.- G: Rugged Self-Supporting Structure.- H: High Resolution and Large Size.- I: Transparent Display Media with n = 1.- J: Does Not Scatter Ambient Light.- K: Tolerant to Harsh Environments and Temperature Extremes.- L: Reasonable Impedance Characteristics.- M: Diffuse Glow.- N: Transparent for Back Projection.- O: Natural Color Capability.- P: Flat-panel Display.- 10.2 History.- 10.2.1 History of Gas Discharges.- 10.2.2 History of Plasma Displays.- 10.3 Basic Electro-Optical Characteristics of the Gas Discharge.- 10.3.1 I-V Characteristic.- 10.3.2 Resistor Load-Line Technique.- 10.3.3 External Current-Limiting Requirement.- 10.3.4 Luminous Regions of a Gas Discharge.- 10.3.5 Wavelength Distribu tion.- 10.4 Gas-Discharge Physics.- 10.4.1 Gas-Discharge Reactions.- Neon Atom Energy Levels.- Ionization.- Excitation.- Metastable Generation.- Penning Ionization.- Cathode Surface Reactions.- Avalanches.- 10.4.2 Gas-Discharge Feedback Model.- Loop Gain.- Current Growth.- Priming Requirement.- 10.4.3 Paschen Curve.- 10.4.4 Regions of the I-V Characteristic.- Extreme-Low-Current Region.- Townsend Discharge Region.- Subnormal-Glow Region.- Normal-Glow Region.- Abnormal-Glow Region.- Arc Region.- 10.4.5 Spatial Regions of the Normal-Glow Discharge.- 10.4.6 Priming.- Pilot-Cell Priming.- Self-Priming.- Radioactive Priming.- 10.4.7 Time-Varying Characteristics.- Initial Growth of Discharge.- Afterglow.- 10.5 Current-Limiting Techniques.- 10.5.1 DC Current Limiting.- 10.5.2 AC Current Limiting.- 10.5.3 Other Current-Limiting Techniques.- Pulse-width Current Limiting.- Abnormal-Glow Current Limiting.- 10.6 DC Plasma Displays.- 10.6.1 NIXIE Tube.- Use of Mercury to Extend Life.- 10.6.2 Segmented Discharge Displays.- Multiplexing Segmented Displays.- Segmented DC Timing Waveforms.- 10.6.3 DC Dot Matrix Displays.- Scanning Technique.- Okaya-Oki Display.- Matsushita Display.- 10.6.4 Self-Scan(t) Display.- Gas-Discharge Switching for the Self-Scan(t).- Scan-Discharge Operation.- Display-Discharge Operation.- Self-Scan(t) Structures.- Self-Scan(t) Electrical Characteristics.- The Self-Scan(t) Memory Characteristic.- Self-Scan(t) Bar-Graph Display.- 10.6.5 Philips DC Display.- 10.7 AC Plasma Displays.- 10.7.1 AC Plasma Display Structures.- University of Illinois.- Owens-Illinois.- Capillary.- Single Substrate.- Details of the Commercial AC Structure.- MgO Overcoat Layer.- 10.7.2 Electrical Characteristics of the AC Display.- Memory Characteristics.- Hysteresis Effect.- 10.7.3 Addressing.- Priming.- 10.7.4 Drive-Circuit Considerations.- 10.7.5 Refreshed Segmented AC Plasma Display.- Distributed-Glow Characteristics.- Wide Operational-Temperature Range.- Multiplexing.- 10.7.6 Refreshed Dot Matrix AC Plasma Display.- 10.7.7 AC Shift Panels.- AC Shift with Priming Coupling.- AC Shift with Wall Charge Coupling.- Other AC Shift Technologies.- Shift Caveat.- 10.8 Hybrid AC-DC Plasma Displays.- 10.8.1 Self-Scan(t) Memory Panel.- 10.8.2 SonyAC-DC Hybrid.- 10.9 Image Displays.- 10.9.1 Gray Scale.- Self-Scan(t) Gray Scale.- AC Plasma Gray Scale.- Pseudo Gray Scale.- 10.9.2 Color Plasma Displays.- Gas Mixtures with Different Colors.- Color with Electron-Excited Phosphors.- Color with UV-Excited Phosphors.- Phosphor Lifetime in Plasma Displays.- 10.9.3 Color Television.- Duty Cycle Considerations.- Negative-Glow Television Displays.- Positive-Column Television Displays.- NHK Color Television.- 10.10 Hybrid Plasma-CRT.- 10.11 Fabrication of Plasma Displays.- 10.12 Future of Plasma Displays.- References.- 11. Nonemissive Displays.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.1.1 General Characteristics of Nonemissive Displays.- 11.1.2History.- 11.1.3Definitions and Acronyms.- 11.2 The Liquid-Crystal Phase.- 11.2.1Liquid-Crystal Symmetry.- 11.2.2Liquid-Crystal Materials.- 11.2.3Physics of Liquid-Crystal Displays.- 11.2.4Liquid-Crystal Alignment.- 11.3 LCD Configurations.- 11.3.1Dynamic Scattering LCD.- 11.3.2Dichroic Dye LCD.- 11.3.3Cholesteric-Nematic LCD.- 11.3.4Deformation of Aligned-Phase LCD.- 11.3.5Twisted Nematic LCD.- 11.3.6Fluorescent LCD.- 11.3.7Smectic LCD.- 11.3.8Disclination Display Modes.- 11.4 Intrinsic Matrix Addressing of LCDs.- 11.4.1Fast-Scan Matrix Addressing.- 11.4.2Two-Frequency Addressing.- 11.4.3Hysteresis Multiplex Addressing.- 11.4.4Thermal Addressing.- 11.4.5Other Intrinsic Addressing Modes.- 11.4.6System Considerations for Intrinsic Matrix Addressing.- 11.5 Extrinsic Matrix Addressing of LCDs.- 11.5.1Ferroelectric Addressing.- 11.5.2Varistor Addressing.- 11.5.3Thin-Film Transistor Addressing.- 11.5.4Bulk Silicon Addressing.- 11.6 Electrochromic Displays.- 11.6.1Introduction.- 11.6.2Nonstoichiometric ECDs.- 11.6.3Deposition ECDs.- 11.6.4Other Electrochromic Mechanisms.- 11.7 Colloidal Displays.- 11.7.1Introduction.- 11.7.2Electrophoretic Displays.- 11.7.3Dipolar Suspension Displays.- 11.8 Electroactive Solids.- 11.8.1Introduction.- 11.8.2Ferroelectric Displays.- 11.8.3 Ferromagnetic Display.- 11.8.4 Surface Deformation Displays.- 11.9 Electromechanical Displays.- 11.9.1. Introduction.- 11.9.2 Minielectronic Shutters.- 11.9.3 Rotating Ball Displays.- 11.9.4 Galvanometer Displays.- 11.10 Conclusion.- References.