Frontiers in Electronic Testing

By: Alfredo Benso (Editor), Paolo Prinetto (Editor)

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Hardcover | 31 October 2003

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Our society is faced with an increasing dependence on computing systems, not only in high tech consumer applications but also in areas (for example, air and railway traffic control, nuclear plant control, aircraft and car control) where a failure can be critical for the safety of human beings. Unfortunately, it is accepted that large digital systems cannot be fault-free. Some faults may be attributed to inaccuracy during the development, while others can come from external causes such as environmental stress. Radiations, electromagnetic interference and power glitches are some of the most common causes of transient faults. As a consequence, the past years have seen a growing interest in methods for studying the behaviour of computer-based systems when faults occur, and several approaches have been proposed to evaluate the dependability properties of a computer-based system. Fault Injection, that is, the artificial injection of faults into a computer system in order to study its behaviour, emerged as a viable solution, and has been deeply investigated by both academia and industry. Different techniques have been proposed and some of them practically experimented.

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Contributing Authors	p. xiii
Preface	p. 1
Acknowledgments	p. 3
A First Look at Fault Injection	p. 5
Fault Injection Techniques	p. 7
Introduction	p. 7
The Metrics of Dependability	p. 8
Dependability Factors	p. 9
Fault Category	p. 10
Fault Space	p. 10
Hardware/Physical Fault	p. 11
Software Fault	p. 12
Statistical Fault Coverage Estimation	p. 13
Forced Coverage	p. 14
Fault Coverage Estimation with One-Sided Confidence Interval	p. 16
Mean Time To Unsafe Failure (MTTUF) [SMIT_00]	p. 17
An Overview of Fault Injection	p. 18
The History of Fault Injection	p. 19
Sampling Process	p. 20
Fault Injection Environment [HSUE_97]	p. 20
Quantitative Safety Assessment Model	p. 21
The FARM Model	p. 24
Levels of Abstraction of Fault Injection	p. 25
The Fault Injection Attributes	p. 25
Hardware-based Fault Injection	p. 28
Assumptions	p. 29
Advantages	p. 29
Disadvantages	p. 30
Tools	p. 30
Software-based Fault Injection	p. 31
Assumptions	p. 32
Advantages	p. 32
Disadvantages	p. 32
Tools	p. 33
Simulation-based Fault Injection	p. 33
Assumptions	p. 33
Advantages	p. 34
Disadvantages	p. 34
Tools	p. 34
Hybrid Fault Injection	p. 35
Tools	p. 35
Objectives of Fault Injection	p. 35
Fault Removal [AVRE_92]	p. 36
Fault Forecasting [ARLA_90]	p. 37
Further Researches	p. 37
No-Response Faults	p. 38
Large Number of Fault Injection Experiments Required	p. 39
Dependability Evaluation Methods	p. 41
Types of Dependability Evaluation Methods	p. 41
Dependability Evaluation by Analysis	p. 42
Dependability Evaluation by Field Experience	p. 45
Dependability Evaluation by Fault Injection Testing	p. 46
Conclusion and outlook	p. 47
Soft Errors on Digital Components	p. 49
Introduction	p. 49
Soft Errors	p. 51
Radiation Effects (SEU, SEE)	p. 51
SER measurement and testing	p. 53
SEU and technology scaling	p. 54
Trends in DRAMs, SRAMs and FLASHs	p. 54
Trends in Combinational Logic and Microprocessor	p. 55
Trends in FPGA	p. 55
Other sources of Soft Errors	p. 56
Protection Against Soft Errors	p. 57
Soft Error avoidance	p. 57
Soft Error removal and forecasting	p. 57
Soft Error tolerance and evasion	p. 58
SOC Soft Error tolerance	p. 58
Conclusions	p. 59
Hardware-Implemented Fault Injection	p. 61
Pin-Level Hardware Fault Injection Techniques	p. 63
Introduction	p. 63
State of the Art	p. 64
Fault injection methodology	p. 64
Fault injection	p. 64
Data acquisition	p. 65
Data processing	p. 65
Pin-level fault injection techniques and tools	p. 65
The Pin Level FI FARM model	p. 66
Fault model set	p. 67
Activation set	p. 67
Readouts Set	p. 67
Measures set	p. 68
Description of the Fault Injection Tool	p. 68
AFIT--Advanced Fault Injection Tool	p. 68
The injection process: A case study	p. 73
System Description	p. 73
The injection campaign	p. 74
Execution time and overhead	p. 77
Critical Analysis	p. 78
Development of a Hybrid Fault Injection Environment	p. 81
Dependability Testing and Evaluation of Railway Control Systems	p. 81
Birth of a Validation Environment	p. 82
The Evolution of "Live"	p. 86
Two examples of automation	p. 88
Example application	p. 92
Conclusions	p. 93
Heavy Ion Induced See in Sram Based FPGAs	p. 95
Introduction	p. 95
Experimental Set Up	p. 96
SEEs in FPGAs	p. 99
SEU and SEFI	p. 99
Supply current increase: SEL?	p. 103
SEU in the configuration memory	p. 106
Conclusions	p. 107
Software-Implemented Fault Injection	p. 109
"Bond": An Agents-Based Fault Injector for Windows nt	p. 111
The target platform	p. 111
Interposition Agents and Fault Injection	p. 112
The BOND Tool	p. 113
General Architecture: the Multithreaded Injection	p. 114
The Logger Agent	p. 115
Fault Injection Activation Event	p. 115
Fault Effect Observation	p. 117
The Fault Injection Agent	p. 117
Fault location	p. 117
Fault type	p. 118
Fault duration	p. 119
The Graphical User Interface	p. 119
Experimental Evaluation of BOND	p. 120
Winzip32	p. 121
Floating Point Benchmark	p. 122
Conclusions	p. 123
Xception: A Software Implemented Fault Injection Tool	p. 125
Introduction	p. 125
The Xception Technique	p. 126
The FARM model in Xception	p. 127
Faults	p. 127
Activations	p. 128
Readouts	p. 129
Measures	p. 129
The XCEPTION TOOLSET	p. 129
Architecture and key features	p. 130
The Experiment Manager Environment (EME)	p. 131
On the target side	p. 131
Monitoring capabilities	p. 132
Designed for portability	p. 133
Extended Xception	p. 133
Fault definition made easy	p. 134
Xtract--the analysis tool	p. 134
Xception on the field--a selected case study	p. 135
Experimental setup	p. 136
Results	p. 136
Critical Analysis	p. 138
Deployment and development time	p. 138
Technical limitations of SWIFI and Xception	p. 138
Mafalda: A Series of Prototype Tools for the Assessment of Real Time Cots Microkernel-Based Systems	p. 141
Introduction	p. 141
Overall Structure of MAFALDA-RT	p. 143
Fault Injection	p. 145
Fault models and SWIFI	p. 146
Coping with the temporal intrusiveness of SWIFI	p. 147
Workload and Activation	p. 149
Synthetic workload	p. 149
Real time application	p. 150
Readouts and Measures	p. 151
Assessment of the behavior in presence of faults	p. 151
Targeting different microkernels	p. 153
Lessons Learnt and Perspectives	p. 155
Simulation-Based Fault Injection	p. 157
Vhdl Simulation-Based Fault Injection Techniques	p. 159
Introduction	p. 159
VHDL Simulation-Based Fault Injection	p. 160
Simulator Commands Technique	p. 161
Modifying the VHDL Model	p. 162
Saboteurs Technique	p. 162
Mutants Technique	p. 164
Other Techniques	p. 167
Fault Models	p. 167
Description of VFIT	p. 168
General Features	p. 168
Injection Phases	p. 169
Block diagram	p. 170
Experiments of Fault Injection: Validation of a Fault Tolerant Microcomputer System	p. 173
Conclusions	p. 176
Mefisto: A Series of Prototype Tools for Fault Injection Into Vhdl Models	p. 177
Introduction	p. 177
MEFISTO-L	p. 178
Structure of the Tool	p. 179
The Fault Attribute	p. 181
The Activation Attribute	p. 182
The Readouts and Measures	p. 183
Application of MEFISTO-L for Testing FTMs	p. 184
MEFISTO-C	p. 185
Structure of the Tool	p. 185
Reducing the Cost of Error Coverage Estimation by Combining Experimental and Analytical Techniques	p. 187
Using MEFISTO-C for Assessing Scan-Chain Implemented Fault Injection	p. 189
Some Lessons Learnt and Perspectives	p. 191
Simulation-Based Fault Injection and Testing Unsing the Mutation Technique	p. 195
Fault Injection Technique: Mutation Testing	p. 195
Introduction	p. 195
Mutation Testing	p. 196
Different mutations	p. 199
Weak mutation	p. 199
Firm mutation	p. 200
Selective mutation	p. 201
Test generation based on mutation	p. 201
Functional testing method	p. 203
Motivations	p. 203
Mutation testing for hardware	p. 203
The Alien Tool	p. 207
The implementation tool	p. 208
General presentation of the tool	p. 208
ALIEN detailed description	p. 209
Experimental work	p. 211
Before enhancement of test data	p. 212
After enhancement of test data	p. 212
Comparison with the classical ATPGs	p. 213
Conclusion	p. 214
Approach robustness	p. 214
Robustness with regard to the different hardware implementations	p. 214
Robustness with regard to the different hardware fault models	p. 214
Limitations and Reusability	p. 215
New Acceleration Techniques for Simulation-Based Fault-Injection	p. 217
Introduction	p. 217
RT-Level Fault-Injection Campaign	p. 219
Fault Injection	p. 221
Checkpoints and Snapshot	p. 221
Early stop	p. 222
Hyperactivity	p. 223
Smart resume	p. 223
Dynamic Equivalencies	p. 224
Workload Independent Fault Collapsing	p. 224
Workload Dependent Fault Collapsing	p. 225
Dynamic Fault Collapsing	p. 226
Experimental Results	p. 227
Conclusions	p. 229
References	p. 231
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Frontiers in Electronic Testing

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