| List of Tables and Figures | p. ix |
| List of Examples | p. xi |
| Introduction to the Ethnographer's Toolkit | p. xvi |
| Essential Data Collection | p. 1 |
| What Is Essential Data Collection? | p. 1 |
| Why Are Research Questions Required to Guide Essential Data Collection? | p. 2 |
| The Value of Research Modeling Based on Research Questions and Prior Knowledge | p. 5 |
| Basic Skills Required in Essential Data Collection | p. 8 |
| Establishing Professional Boundaries: Intimacy and Relationships in Face-to-Face Data Collection | p. 17 |
| Summary: Challenges in Collecting Observational and Interview Data in Person | p. 20 |
| Defining and Entering the Field | p. 22 |
| Fieldwork and the Field | p. 23 |
| The Ethnographer as Self-Reflective Tool for Inquiry | p. 26 |
| Establishing Relationships to Facilitate Entry | p. 32 |
| Steps in Entering a Research Setting | p. 32 |
| Recording and Organizing Ethnographic Field Data: Field Notes, Interviews, Drawings, Visual Documentation, and Survey Data | p. 47 |
| What Are Field Notes, and Why Are They Important? | p. 47 |
| Recording Field Notes | p. 54 |
| Writing Up Field Notes | p. 56 |
| Making Decisions about What to Write | p. 60 |
| Organizing and Managing Ethnographic Data While in the Field | p. 78 |
| Storing Quantitative Data for Subsequent Analysis | p. 81 |
| Summary | p. 82 |
| Participant Observation and Informal Interviewing in the Field | p. 83 |
| Introduction | p. 83 |
| Differences between Participant Observation and Nonparticipant Observation | p. 84 |
| Observation from a Distance | p. 88 |
| Deciding Where and What to Observe | p. 91 |
| Deciding When to Observe | p. 101 |
| Informal Interviewing in the Field | p. 103 |
| Tips on Recording Observations and Informal Interviews | p. 107 |
| Dynamics and Challenges in Field Observation | p. 110 |
| Summary | p. 111 |
| Additional Methods for Collecting Exploratory Data | p. 112 |
| Introduction | p. 112 |
| Social and Other Forms of Mapping | p. 112 |
| Eliciting Information through Objects, Drawings, Materials, and Photographs | p. 124 |
| Timelines | p. 128 |
| Organizational Charts | p. 131 |
| Summary | p. 132 |
| In-depth, Open-ended Exploratory Interviewing | p. 134 |
| Introduction and Definitions | p. 134 |
| Purposes of In-depth, Exploratory, Open-ended Interviewing | p. 135 |
| Selecting and Sampling: When and Whom to Interview | p. 137 |
| Preparing for the Interview | p. 140 |
| Starting an Unstructured Exploratory Interview | p. 151 |
| Structuring Open-ended Interviews | p. 152 |
| Self-management during Interviewing | p. 163 |
| Recording Research Interviews | p. 166 |
| Summary | p. 167 |
| Semistructured Interviews and Observations | p. 171 |
| What Are Semistructured Forms of Data Collection? | p. 171 |
| Conducting Semistructured Interviews | p. 174 |
| Constructing a Semistructured Interview Schedule | p. 179 |
| Analysis of Semistructured Interview Data | p. 183 |
| Conducting Semistructured Observations | p. 188 |
| Sampling in Semistructured Data Collection | p. 191 |
| Identifying and Resolving Challenges in Semistructured Data Collection | p. 193 |
| Summary | p. 194 |
| Focus Group Interviews | p. 195 |
| What Is a Group Interview? | p. 195 |
| Formal Focus Group Interviews | p. 196 |
| Organizing and Preparing for Formal Focus Group Interviews | p. 198 |
| Creating a Representative Sample for a Focus Group | p. 202 |
| Identifying and Training Focus Group Facilitators | p. 211 |
| Conducting a Focus Group Interview | p. 216 |
| Asking Questions in Focus Group Interviews | p. 220 |
| Characteristics of Good Focus Group Questions | p. 222 |
| Recording Data from Focus Group Interviews | p. 226 |
| Videotaping | p. 231 |
| Validity and Reliability in Research with Focus Groups | p. 233 |
| Management and Analysis of Focus Group Interviews | p. 237 |
| Advantages, Uses, and Limitations of Focus Group Interviews | p. 239 |
| Structured Approaches to Ethnographic Data Collection: Surveys | p. 241 |
| The Role of Structured Data Collection | p. 241 |
| Defining Ethnographic Surveys | p. 243 |
| Steps in the Construction of the Ethnographic Survey | p. 247 |
| Administration of Ethnographic Interviews | p. 271 |
| Analysis of Quantitative Data | p. 275 |
| Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Data: Triangulation | p. 276 |
| Summary | p. 278 |
| Sampling in Ethnographic Research | p. 280 |
| Approaches to Selection in Ethnographic Research | p. 283 |
| Approaches to Sampling to Approximate or Achieve Representativeness of a Population in Ethnographic Research | p. 294 |
| Requirements for and Cautions about the Use of Samples | p. 309 |
| Summary | p. 318 |
| Defining and Evaluating Quality in Ethnographic Research | p. 319 |
| Introduction: What Is Research Quality? | p. 319 |
| Reliability, Validity, Objectivity, and Subjectivity | p. 320 |
| The Positivist Critique of Ethnography | p. 323 |
| Why Ethnographic Characteristics Fit Poorly with Positivistic Canons for Research Quality | p. 325 |
| Validity | p. 327 |
| Reliability | p. 341 |
| Conclusion | p. 343 |
| References | p. 345 |
| Index | p. 353 |
| About the Authors and Artists | p. 363 |
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