PREFACE xv
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
CHAPTER 1 DISEASE TRANSMISSION BY CONTAMINATED WATER 1
Richard F. Unz
Introduction / 1
Control of Source (Agent Factors) / 3
Control of Mode of Transmission / 5
Control of Susceptibles (Host Factors) / 6
Typical Epidemic Control / 8
Waterborne Diseases / 12
General / 12
Survival of Pathogens / 13
Substance Dose to Cause Illness / 15
Summary of Characteristics and Control of Water- and Foodborne Diseases / 17
Vehicle or Means by Which Waterborne Diseases Are Spread / 44
Historical Waterborne Disease Background / 45
Control and Prevention of Waterborne Diseases / 55
Prevention of Waterborne Diseases / 56
Schistosomiasis / 58
Bioterrorism / 59
Smallpox / 61
Anthrax / 62
Plague / 64
Tularemia / 65
Glanders / 65
Botulism / 66
Tetanus or Lockjaw / 67
Noninfectious and Noncommunicable Diseases and
Conditions Associated with the Water Environment / 67
Background / 67
Prevention and Control / 71
Investigation of a Water Disease Outbreak / 72
General / 72
Samples and Specimens / 81
Epidemiology and Risk / 83
Molecular Detection of Waterborne Pathogens / 86
References / 90
Bibliography / 98
CHAPTER 2 CONTROL OF DISEASES OF THE AIR AND LAND 99
Nabarun Dasgupta
Communicable Diseases / 99
Background / 99
Life Expectancy and Mortality / 101
Framework for Disease Transmission / 106
Regulatory Authorities in Health / 108
Epidemic Control at the Individual Level / 109
Behavioral Change / 110
Antibiotics and Antivirals / 111
Vaccination (or Immunization) / 111
Control of Infectious Agents and Vectors / 113
Environmental Control of Infectious Diseases / 114
Arthropodborne Diseases / 116
Zoonoses and Their Spread / 127
Infectious Respiratory Diseases / 138
Bioterrorism / 141
Smallpox / 142
Anthrax / 143
Noncommunicable Diseases and Conditions Associated with the Environment / 143
Background / 143
Prevention and Control / 146
Environmental Control Legislation / 147
Lead Poisoning / 151
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning / 154
Mercury Poisoning / 155
Illnesses Associated with Air Pollution—Lung Diseases / 157
Asbestos Diseases / 159
Malignant Neoplasms (Cancer) / 160
Cardiovascular Diseases / 160
Methemoglobinemia / 162
Dental Caries / 162
Hypothermia / 163
High Environmental Temperatures / 163
Skin Damage from Sunlight / 164
Tap Water Scalds / 165
Sporotrichosis / 165
Definitions / 165
Useful Internet Web Sites / 169
References / 169
CHAPTER 3 FOODBORNE DISEASES 175
Nabarun Dasgupta
Introduction / 175
Survival of Pathogens / 176
Infectious Dose / 177
Reservoir or Source of Disease Agents / 178
Humans as Reservoirs / 178
Animals as Reservoirs / 180
Food Spoilage / 181
Burden and Cost of Foodborne Illness / 183
Foodborne Disease Outbreak Surveillance / 184
Poultry / 185
Milk and Other Dairy Products / 186
Fruits and Vegetables / 188
Meat and Seafood / 188
Control and Prevention of Foodborne Diseases / 188
Prevention of Foodborne Diseases / 188
Mercury Poisoning / 197
Methemoglobinemia / 199
Dental Caries / 200
Sporotrichosis / 201
Nutritional Deficiency and Related Diseases / 201
References / 207
CHAPTER 4 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 213
Harvey F. Ludwig
Abbreviations / 213
Introduction / 215
Background / 215
History / 215
Problem of Developing Countries / 216
Summary of DC Problem / 217
Purpose of This Chapter / 219
Specific Subjects Included in This Chapter / 220
Environmental Governance / 223
Introduction / 223
Situation in DCs versus United States/ICs / 223
What DC and IAA Practitioners Can Do to Correct This Problem / 224
Role of the Private Sector / 225
Urban Water Supply / 225
Situation in United States/ICs / 225
Situation in Typical DCs / 226
Suggested Approach for Improving IAA Assistance to DCs / 227
Appropriate Water Quality Standards / 229
Water and Sewer Pipes in Same Trench / 229
Reuse of Treated Wastewater / 231
IAA-Sponsored Community Water Supply Programs / 231
Other Considerations / 232
Water Hyacinths / 233
Water Quality Analyses / 234
Water Quality Monitoring / 238
Role of Private Sector / 238
Integrated Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning (IEEDP) / 240
Water Resources Management / 240
Reducing Water Irrigation Requirement / 241
China Studies Sponsored by World Bank / 241
Watershed Management / 242
Urban Sewerage and Excreta Management (USEM) / 242
Situation in ICs / 243
Situation in Typical DCs / 245
Sewerage-cum-Sanitation Systems for 100 Percent
Excreta Management / 247
Sewage Treatment Systems / 247
Sewage Collection (Including Interceptors, Pumping, Transmission) / 248
Sewage Characteristics and Needs for Treatment and Point Source Control / 250
Sewage Flow Measurement / 250
Appropriate Standards / 251
Marine Sewage Disposal / 251
Buffer Area Requirements around
Treatment/Pumping Plants / 253
Regional Water Pollution Control / 253
Industrial Wastewater Management / 253
Situation in ICs versus DCs / 253
Discharge into Municipal Sewerage Systems (MSSs) / 255
Discharge Directly to Environment / 256
Appropriate Standards / 257
Cleaner Production (CP) / 257
Industrial Estates / 258
Marine Disposal / 258
Abstract / 260
Urban Solid Waste Management / 261
Situation in United States versus DCs / 261
Practical Sanitary Landfilling Technology for DCs / 261
Experience in Asian DCs / 262
Alternative Disposal Methods / 264
Reclamation of Swamp Lowlands by Refuse Landfilling / 264
Urban Air Pollution Control / 269
Background / 269
Thailand: General Situation / 269
Thailand: Sharing of Controls for Multiple Industries / 270
Air Pollution Control Experience in India / 272
Hazardous Wastes Management / 276
Background / 276
Guidelines Manual for DCs / 276
Megacities: Rural to Urban Migration / 282
Background / 282
Economic Policies for Sustainable Development (ADB) / 282
Existing Situation in the DCs / 283
Urban Growth Management/Action Strategy / 285
Effective Control of Environmental Degradation / 287
Follow-up Evaluation of ADB Study / 288
Essay on Urban Population Growth in DCs / 290
Urban Slums / 292
Background / 292
Indonesia Kampung Improvement Projects (KIPs) / 292
Urban Sanitation / 295
Ports and Harbors / 295
Coastal City of Chonburi in Thailand / 296
Public Water Supply Taps / 296
Rural Sanitation / 298
Very Low Priority for Attention / 298
WHO Manuals / 298
Xiaolangdi Resettlement / 298
Farm Animal Manures / 300
Handwashing / 300
School Sanitation / 301
Hazard of Flies / 301
Septic Tanks for Coastal Homes on Stilts / 301
Water Treatment for Homes Using Surface Waters / 301
Public Health / 302
Assessment by Asian Development Bank / 302
Water Supply and Sanitation / 302
Disease Reporting / 303
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) / 305
Difficulties in Application of EIA Process to DCs / 305
Effective Use of EIA Process in DCs / 306
Recommended EIA Report Components / 309
Constraints for Construction Contractors / 310
Need for Effective Training / 312
Environmental Economics and Financing / 313
Inclusion of Environmental Values in Project
Economic Analysis (PEA) / 313
Effect of EPMs on Project Economic and Financial Analyses / 313
Human Greed Parameter / 313
Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning / 314
Value of Human Life / 314
Protecting Precious Eco-Resources / 314
Emergencies Management / 315
Technology Transfer (TT) / 315
Problem / 315
Recommendation / 317
Development Planning for DCs / 317
Social Parameters: Attention to Rural Poverty Poor / 317
Eco-Resources Protection / 319
Affordability of Environmental Improvements / 322
Integrated Economic-cum-Environmental Development Planning (IEEDP) / 322
Global Warming / 323
Problem / 323
Future of Environment in Developing Countries / 325
Problem of DCs / 325
Changes in Environmental Policy in the ICs / 325
Glimpse of Future / 326
Recommendations / 326
References / 326
CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL EMERGENCIES AND EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 335
Piero M. Armenante and James P. Mack
Introduction / 335
Emergency Planning for Industrial Facilities / 339
Resources / 340
Emergency Operations Centers (EOCs) / 341
Media Center / 341
Communication Equipment and Alarm Systems / 342
Firefighting Facilities, Equipment, and Supplies / 344
Spill and Vapor Release Control Equipment / 345
Medical Facilities, Equipment, and Supplies / 345
Meteorological Equipment / 346
Security and Access Control Equipment / 346
Environmental Testing Systems / 346
Emergency Action Levels / 347
Emergency Response Organization / 347
Initial-Response Organization / 348
Full Emergency Response Organization / 349
Emergency Director (Site Emergency Coordinator) / 349
Response Operations Coordinator / 349
Incident Response Commander (IRC, Field Operations Coordinator) / 351
Incident Response Team / 351
Emergency Functions / 352
Emergency Response Actions / 353
Concept of Operations / 353
Emergency Response Implementing Procedures / 353
Environmental Considerations / 354
Recovery, Reentry, and Restoration / 354
Training, Exercises, and Plan Maintenance / 355
Emergency Planning at the Local Level / 356
Emergency Management / 356
Leadership Commitment / 356
Planning Team / 357
Planning Process / 358
Hazards Analysis / 358
Damage Assessment and Recovery Operations / 360
Resources / 360
Content of the Plan and Procedures / 361
Plan Integration / 362
Public Information / 363
Public Education / 363
Public Emergency Notification / 364
Conclusion / 364
References / 364
INDEX 367
