| An Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Europe | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 2 |
| Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Why this Topic Matters Now | p. 2 |
| The Current Assessment | p. 3 |
| Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services | p. 4 |
| Ecosystem Services | p. 4 |
| Relationships between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services | p. 4 |
| Land Use and Multiple Services | p. 7 |
| European Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services | p. 8 |
| Managing Ecosystem Services in Europe | p. 16 |
| How Ecosystems Respond to Change | p. 16 |
| Threats to Biodiversity, and Consequences for Ecosystem Services in the European Union | p. 18 |
| Methods of Valuing Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services | p. 19 |
| Prioritising Ecosystem Services in Land Management: Weighing up Alternative Land Uses | p. 22 |
| Conclusions | p. 23 |
| References | p. 24 |
| Ecosystem Services and Policy: A Review of Coastal Wetland Ecosystem Services and an Efficiency-Based Framework for Implementing the Ecosystem Approach | p. 29 |
| Ecosystem Services and the Ecosystem Approach to Policy | p. 30 |
| Existing Frameworks for Understanding Ecosystem Services | p. 31 |
| Coastal Wetlands: Ecosystems on the Front Line of Global Change | p. 32 |
| Defining Coastal Wetlands | p. 32 |
| Ecosystem Services from Coastal Wetlands | p. 36 |
| Management to Combat Environmental Change and Threats to Coastal Wetlands | p. 38 |
| A New Conceptual Framework to Underpin the Ecosystem Approach | p. 41 |
| Conclusions and Future Challenges | p. 44 |
| Acknowledgements | p. 46 |
| References | p. 46 |
| Ecosystem Services and Food Production | p. 52 |
| Introduction | p. 53 |
| Ecosystem Services Important for Food Production | p. 54 |
| A Conceptual Framework | p. 54 |
| Ecosystem Services | p. 55 |
| The Impact of Food Production on Ecosystems | p. 62 |
| Conclusions | p. 64 |
| References | p. 65 |
| Atmospheric Services | p. 70 |
| Introduction: The Atmosphere as Part of the Earth System | p. 71 |
| Ecosystem Services versus Atmospheric Services | p. 73 |
| The Atmosphere as both a Resource and a Hazard | p. 76 |
| Who Owns the Atmosphere? | p. 77 |
| The Valuation of Atmospheric Services | p. 81 |
| An Estimate of the Total Economic Value of Atmospheric Services | p. 83 |
| Atmospheric Services and Natural Capital | p. 85 |
| The Air that We Breathe | p. 86 |
| Protection from Extra-Terrestial Radiation Plasma and Meteors | p. 87 |
| Natural Global Warming | p. 88 |
| Cleansing Capacity and the Dispersion of Air Pollution | p. 88 |
| Clouds and the Hydrological Cycle | p. 90 |
| Direct Use of the Atmosphere for Ecosystems and Agriculture | p. 91 |
| The Combustion of Fuel | p. 92 |
| Air Transport, Communications and Sound | p. 93 |
| Direct and Indirect Use of the Atmosphere for Energy and Power | p. 96 |
| The Extraction of Atmospheric Gases | p. 97 |
| Atmospheric Recreation and Climate Tourism | p. 98 |
| Aesthetic, Spiritual and Sensual Properties | p. 99 |
| Conclusions | p. 100 |
| Acknowledgements | p. 101 |
| References | p. 101 |
| Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services: The Ecological Foundation of Human Society | p. 105 |
| Introduction | p. 106 |
| Societal Dependence on Ecosystems in Different Socio-Economic Contexts | p. 107 |
| Understanding the Links between Ecosystems and Human Well-Being | p. 108 |
| Ecosystem Structure and Functioning | p. 109 |
| Ecosystem Functions | p. 111 |
| Ecosystem Services | p. 111 |
| Ecosystem Benefits and Human Weil-Being | p. 111 |
| Accounting and Valuation of Natural Capital and Ecosystem Services | p. 112 |
| Approaches Based on Human Preferences | p. 114 |
| Approaches Based on Physical Costs | p. 115 |
| Discussion and Conclusions | p. 116 |
| The Controversy of Value Commensurability | p. 116 |
| Why Use the Notion of Natural Capital? | p. 116 |
| References | p. 117 |
| Protecting Water Resources and Health by Protecting the Environment: A Case Study | p. 122 |
| Introduction | p. 123 |
| The Environmental Obligations on Water Utilities | p. 124 |
| Discharge Consents have Tightened | p. 125 |
| Review of Discharge Consents due to EU Directives | p. 125 |
| Prohibition of 'Dumping' Sewage at Sea | p. 126 |
| How Water Utilities meet their Environmental Obligations | p. 127 |
| A More Sustainable Ecosystem-Based Approach for the Future | p. 127 |
| The Wessex Water Experience with Catchment Management | p. 129 |
| Identification of Catchment and Farms | p. 129 |
| Actions Taken with the Fanner to Reduce Pollution | p. 129 |
| Monitoring of Improvements | p. 133 |
| Advantages of the Catchment Management Approach | p. 136 |
| Other Examples of an Ecosystem Approach | p. 138 |
| Conclusions | p. 138 |
| References | p. 138 |
| Life Cycle Assessment as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services | p. 140 |
| Introduction | p. 141 |
| Life Cycle Thinking and Life Cycle Assessment | p. 143 |
| LCA Methodology: An Overview | p. 144 |
| LCA as a Tool for Sustainable Management of Ecosystem Services | p. 150 |
| Life Cycle Impacts of Energy: The Electricity Sector | p. 150 |
| Life Cycle Impacts of Transport | p. 153 |
| Life Cycle Impacts of Industry: The Example of the Chemical Sector | p. 157 |
| Life Cycle Impacts in the Food Sector | p. 159 |
| Conclusions | p. 164 |
| Appendix 1 CML 2 Method: Definition of Environmental Impact Categories | p. 164 |
| References | p. 166 |
| Subject Index | p. 169 |
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