Preface xvii
Introduction xxv
Part I Systems Thinking in the Disciplines 1
1 Philosophy 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Kant 4
1.3 Hegel 8
1.4 Pragmatism 9
1.5 Husserl and Phenomenology 10
1.6 Radical Constructivism 11
1.7 Conclusion 12
2 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method 15
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 The Scientific Method and the Scientific Revolution 16
2.3 The Physical Sciences in the Modern Era 19
2.4 The Scientific Method in the Modern Era 21
2.5 Extending the Scientific Method to Other Disciplines 24
2.6 Conclusion 25
3 The Life Sciences 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Biology 27
3.3 Ecology 35
3.4 Conclusion 40
4 The Social Sciences 43
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Functionalism 44
4.3 Interpretive Social Theory 49
4.4 The Sociology of Radical Change 52
4.5 Postmodernism and Poststructuralism 56
4.6 Integrationist Social Theory 59
4.7 Luhmann’s Social Systems Theory 62
4.8 Action Research 67
4.9 Conclusion 68
Part II The Systems Sciences 71
5 General Systems Theory 75
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 von Bertalanffy and General System Theory 75
5.3 von Bertalanffy’s Collaborators and the Society for General Systems Research 79
5.4 Miller and the Search for Isomorphisms at Different System Levels 80
5.5 Boulding, Emergence and the Centrality of “The Image” 82
5.6 The Influence of General Systems Theory 85
5.7 Conclusion 86
6 Cybernetics 89
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 First?Order Cybernetics 91
6.3 British Cybernetics 95
6.4 Second?Order Cybernetics 102
6.5 Conclusion 108
7 Complexity Theory 111
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 Chaos Theory 112
7.3 Dissipative Structures 117
7.4 Complex Adaptive Systems 119
7.5 Complexity Theory and Management 125
7.6 Complexity Theory and Systems Thinking 136
7.7 Conclusion 144
Part III Systems Practice 147
8 A System of Systems Methodologies 151
8.1 Introduction 151
8.2 Critical or “Second?Order” Systems Thinking 152
8.3 Toward a System of Systems Methodologies 155
8.3.1 Preliminary Considerations 155
8.3.2 Beer’s Classification of Systems 155
8.3.3 The Original “System of Systems Methodologies” 157
8.3.4 Snowden’s Cynefin Framework 160
8.3.5 A Revised “System of Systems Methodologies” 162
8.4 The Development of Applied Systems Thinking 166
8.5 Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity 169
8.6 Conclusion 169
Type A Systems Approaches for Technical Complexity 171
9 Operational Research, Systems Analysis, Systems Engineering (Hard Systems Thinking) 173
9.1 Prologue 173
9.2 Description of Hard Systems Thinking 175
9.2.1 Historical Development 175
9.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 177
9.2.3 Methodology 179
9.2.4 Methods 182
9.2.5 Developments in Hard Systems Thinking 184
9.3 Hard Systems Thinking in Action 188
9.4 Critique of Hard Systems Thinking 191
9.5 Comments 196
9.6 The Value of Hard Systems Thinking to Managers 197
9.7 Conclusion 197
Type B Systems Approaches for Process Complexity 199
10 The Vanguard Method 201
10.1 Prologue 201
10.2 Description of the Vanguard Method 203
10.2.1 Historical Development 203
10.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 206
10.2.3 Methodology 209
10.2.4 Methods 211
10.3 The Vanguard Method in Action 212
10.3.1 Check 213
10.3.2 Plan 215
10.3.3 Do 216
10.4 Critique of the Vanguard Method 220
10.5 Comments 224
10.6 The Value of the Vanguard Method to Managers 225
10.7 Conclusion 226
Type C Systems Approaches for Structural Complexity 227
11 System Dynamics 229
11.1 Prologue 229
11.2 Description of System Dynamics 231
11.2.1 Historical Development 231
11.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 233
11.2.3 Methodology 241
11.2.4 Methods 244
11.3 System Dynamics in Action 247
11.4 Critique of System Dynamics 249
11.5 Comments 258
11.6 The Value of System Dynamics to Managers 258
11.7 Conclusion 259
Type D Systems Approaches for Organizational Complexity 261
12 Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 263
12.1 Prologue 263
12.2 Description of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 264
12.2.1 Historical Development 264
12.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 268
12.2.3 Methodology 276
12.2.4 Methods 279
12.3 Socio?Technical Systems Thinking in Action 280
12.4 Critique of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking 281
12.5 Comments 288
12.6 The Value of Socio?Technical Systems Thinking to Managers 289
12.7 Conclusion 289
13 Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 291
13.1 Prologue 291
13.2 Description of Organizational Cybernetics 296
13.2.1 Historical Development 296
13.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 299
13.2.3 Methodology 311
13.2.4 Methods 317
13.3 Organizational Cybernetics in Action 320
13.4 Critique of Organizational Cybernetics and the Viable System Model 325
13.5 Comments 337
13.6 The Value of Organizational Cybernetics to Managers 339
13.7 Conclusion 340
Type E Systems Approaches for People Complexity 341
14 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 343
14.1 Prologue 343
14.2 Description of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 346
14.2.1 Historical Development 346
14.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 348
14.2.3 Methodology 353
14.2.4 Methods 355
14.3 Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing in Action 357
14.4 Critique of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing 360
14.5 Comments 365
14.6 The Value of Strategic Assumption Surfacing and Testing to Managers 366
14.7 Conclusion 367
15 Interactive Planning 369
15.1 Prologue 369
15.2 Description of Interactive Planning 371
15.2.1 Historical Development 371
15.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 375
15.2.3 Methodology 379
15.2.4 Methods 382
15.3 Interactive Planning in Action 384
15.4 Critique of Interactive Planning 388
15.5 Comments 394
15.6 The Value of Interactive Planning to Managers 395
15.7 Conclusion 395
16 Soft Systems Methodology 397
16.1 Prologue 397
16.2 Description of Soft Systems Methodology 401
16.2.1 Historical Development 401
16.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 404
16.2.3 Methodology 411
16.2.4 Methods 420
16.3 Soft Systems Methodology in Action 427
16.4 Critique of Soft Systems Methodology 431
16.5 Comments 441
16.6 The Value of Soft Systems Methodology to Managers 442
16.7 Conclusion 443
Type F Systems Approaches for Coercive Complexity 445
17 Team Syntegrity 447
17.1 Prologue 447
17.2 Description of Team Syntegrity 449
17.2.1 Historical Development 449
17.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 450
17.2.3 Methodology 455
17.2.4 Methods 458
17.3 Team Syntegrity in Action 459
17.4 Critique of Team Syntegrity 462
17.5 Comments 468
17.6 The Value of Team Syntegrity to Managers 470
17.7 Conclusion 470
18 Critical Systems Heuristics 471
18.1 Prologue 471
18.2 Description of Critical Systems Heuristics 473
18.2.1 Historical Development 473
18.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 476
18.2.3 Methodology 479
18.2.4 Methods 484
18.3 Critical Systems Heuristics in Action 485
18.4 Critique of Critical Systems Heuristics 490
18.5 Comments 502
18.6 The Value of Critical Systems Heuristics to Managers 508
18.7 Conclusion 509
Part IV Critical Systems Thinking 511
19 Critical Systems Theory 515
19.1 Introduction 515
19.2 The Origins of Critical Systems Theory 516
19.2.1 Critical Awareness 517
19.2.2 Pluralism 519
19.2.3 Emancipation or Improvement 522
19.3 Critical Systems Theory and the Management Sciences 524
19.4 Conclusion 528
20 Critical Systems Thinking and Multimethodology 531
20.1 Introduction 531
20.2 Total Systems Intervention 540
20.2.1 Background 540
20.2.2 Multimethodology 541
20.2.3 Case Study 545
20.2.4 Critique 553
20.3 Systemic Intervention 558
20.3.1 Background 558
20.3.2 Multimethodology 559
20.3.3 Case Study 562
20.3.4 Critique 565
20.4 Critical Realism and Multimethodology 568
20.4.1 Background 568
20.4.2 Multimethodology 570
20.4.3 Case Study 572
20.4.4 Critique 572
20.5 Conclusion 576
21 Critical Systems Practice 577
21.1 Prologue 577
21.2 Description of Critical Systems Practice 579
21.2.1 Historical Development 579
21.2.2 Philosophy and Theory 581
21.2.3 Multimethodology 593
21.2.4 Methodologies 601
21.2.5 Methods 604
21.3 Critical Systems Practice in Action 607
21.3.1 North Yorkshire Police 607
21.3.2 Kingston Gas Turbines 617
21.3.3 Hull University Business School 621
21.4 Critique of Critical Systems Practice 632
21.5 Comments 637
21.6 The Value of Critical Systems Practice to Managers 638
21.7 Conclusion 638
Conclusion 641
References 645
Index 679
