Climate Dynamics

Preface xi Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Climate System 1 Reference and Additional Reading 3 Chapter 2 The Observed Climatology 4 2.1 The Atmosphere 5 2.2 The Ocean 22 2.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 33 2.4 The Cryosphere 42 2.5 The Biosphere 46 2.6 Data Sources and References 47 2.7 Exercises 48 Chapter 3 Observations of Natural Climate Variability 49 3.1 Diurnal and Seasonal Climate Variations 50 3.2 Intraseasonal Climate Variability 51 3.3 Interannual Climate Variability 54 3.4 Decadal Climate Variability 59 3.5 Climate Variations on Century to Billion-Year Time Scales 63 3.6 Additional Reading 65 Chapter 4 Radiative Processes in the Climate System 66 4.1 Blackbody Theory 66 4.2 Application of Blackbody Theory to the Earth System 67 4.3 How Constant Is the Solar Constant? 69 4.4 Solar and Terrestrial Spectra 70 4.5 The Greenhouse Effect 76 4.6 The Equation of Transfer 82 4.7 Radiative Effects of Clouds 85 4.8 References 87 4.9 Exercises 87 Chapter 5 Thermodynamics and the Flow of Heat through the Climate System 89 5.1 Equations of State 89 5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 91 5.3 Heat Balance Equations 92 5.4 Observed Heat Fluxes 98 5.5 Additional Reading 107 5.6 Exercises 108 Chapter 6 Dynamics: The Forces That Drive Atmospheric and Ocean Circulations 109 6.1 The Coriolis Force 110 6.2 Pressure Gradient Force 116 6.3 Hydrostatic Balance 117 6.4 Geostrophic Balance 120 6.5 Friction 122 6.6 The Momentum Equations 123 6.7 Exercises 123 Chapter 7 Atmospheric Circulations 126 7.1 Thermally Direct Circulations 126 7.2 Midlatitude Circulation Systems 135 7.3 Exercises 136 Chapter 8 Ocean Circulation Systems 137 8.1 Wind-Driven Circulation: Ekman Dynamics 137 8.2 The Density-Driven Circulation: The Thermohaline Circulation 141 8.3 Vertical Mixing Processes 142 8.4 Reference 146 8.5 Exercises 146 Chapter 9 The Hydrologic Cycle 148 9.1 Atmospheric Water Balance 148 9.2 Land Surface Water Balance 151 9.3 Exercises 152 Chapter 10 Radiative Forcing of Climate Change 153 10.1 The Atmosphere's Changing Chemical Composition 154 10.2 Radiative Effects of Greenhouse Gas Increases 160 10.3 Exercises 163 Chapter 11 Climate Change Processes 165 11.1 Climate Sensitivity 165 11.2 Climate Feedback Processes 166 11.3 Extreme Hydrologic Events 171 11.4 Exercises 172 Chapter 12 Climate Simulation and Prediction 174 12.1 Zero-Dimensional Climate Model 174 12.2 Surface Heat Balance Climate Models 176 12.3 General Circulation Models 177 12.4 Regional Climate Models 181 12.5 Earth System Models 181 12.6 Evaluating Model Uncertainty 185 12.7 Reference and Additional Reading 186 12.8 Exercises 186 Appendix A Units, Constants, and Conversions 189 Appendix B Coordinate Systems 191 Local Cartesian Coordinates 191 Earth-Centered Spherical Coordinates 192 Appendix C Lagrangian and Eulerian Derivatives 195 Index 197