Contents
Preface
Introduction
The Chinese language
Mandarin pronunciation
The Chinese vocabulary
Part I Nouns
Introduction
1 Nouns
1.1 Noun features
1.2 Proper nouns
1.3 Common nouns
1.3.1 The plural suffix -men
1.3.2 Nouns and definite or indefinite reference
1.4 Nouns and conjunctions
1.5 Common nouns: countability
2 Numerals and nouns
2.1 Cardinal numbers
2.1.1 Two forms of the number two
2.2 Ordinal numbers
2.3 âHalfâ
2.4 Fractions, percentages, decimals, multiples and âeveryâ
2.5 Approximation
3 Measures for nouns
3.1 Measures and g¨
3.2 Other measure words
3.3 Abstract nouns
3.4 Material nouns
3.5 Collective nouns
3.6 Relationship between measures and nouns
4 Pronouns
4.1 Personal pronouns
4.2 Possessive pronouns
4.3 Demonstrative pronouns
4.4 Interrogative pronouns
4.5 Other pronouns
4.6 Pronouns and conjunctions
5 Adjectives and attributives
5.1 Attributives
5.2 Adjectives as attributives
5.2.1 Monosyllabic adjectives
5.2.2 Polysyllabic adjectives and de
5.2.3 Disyllabic adjectives and de
5.3 Nominal attributives
5.3.1 Nominal attributives and de
5.4 Prepositional and postpositional phrases as attributives
5.5 Verbal phrases or clauses as attributives
5.6 The order of sequential attributives
5.7 Demonstrative and numeral phrases with other attributives
5.8 Possessive pronoun and other attributives
5.9 r between adjectives
5.10 Omission of the noun following an attributive
5.11 Attributives in word-formation
Part II Verbs
Introduction
6 Adjectival and nominal predicates; the verb sh¬
6.1 Adjectival predicates
6.2 Adjectival predicates and the verb âto beâ
6.2.1 Adjectival predicates and degree adverbs
6.2.2 Adjectival predicates in the negative
6.2.3 Adjectival predicates followed by verbs
6.3 Non-gradable adjectives as attributives
6.3.1 Attributives of shape, colour or material
6.4 Nominal and pronominal predicates
6.4.1 Verbs resembling sh¬
6.4.2 Nominal predicates without a copula
6.5 The copula sh¬ in its negative form
7 The verb yÇ'u; comparisons
7.1 The functions of yÇ'u
7.1.1 YÇ'u indicating possession
7.1.2 MÄi as negative of yÇ'u
7.1.3 YÇ'u indicating change or development
7.1.4 YÇ'u forming idiomatic expressions
7.1.5 YÇ'u introducing adjectival predicates
7.2 Comparison
7.2.1 Emphatic or specific comparison
7.2.2 Negative comparison
7.2.3 Comparison: equivalence or similarity
7.3 Comparatives and superlatives
8 Verbs and aspect markers
8.1 Action, state and dative verbs
8.2 Action verbs
8.3 Aspect markers
8.3.1 Le
8.3.2 Guo
8.3.3 Z i
8.3.4 Zhe
8.4 State verb
8.5 Dative verbs
8.5.1 Dative verbs relating to spoken activity
8.5.2 Dative verbs and aspect markers
8.6 Causative verbs
8.7 Imperatives
8.7.1 Polite requests
8.7.2 Imperatives and aspect markers
9 Motion verbs and direction indicators
9.1 Motion verbs and simple direction indicators
9.2 Motion verbs and compound direction indicators
9.3 Motion verbs with metaphorical meaning
9.4 Direction indicators with specific meanings
10 Verbs and time
10.1 Time expressions
10.2 Point of time expressions
10.2.1 Detailed time expressions
10.3 Point-of-time expressions incorporating verbal phrases
10.4 Imprecise points of time
10.5 Indefinite points of time
10.6 Frequency expressions with mÄi
10.7 Time expressions in existence sentences
10.7.1 Time expressions in emergence or disappearance sentences
11 Verbs and location
11.1 Location expressions
11.2 Z i and postpositional phrases
11.2.1 Disyllabic postpositions
11.2.2 Disyllabic postpositions as location pronouns
11.3 Simple location sentences
11.4 Location phrases modifying main verbs
11.5 Location phrases in existence sentences
11.5.1 Sh¬ in existence sentences
11.5.2 Zhe in existence sentences
11.6 Le in emergence or disappearance sentences
11.7 Order of sequence of time and location phrases
12 Verbs: duration and frequency
12.1 Duration expressions
12.1.1 Duration expressions and noun objects
12.1.2 Repetition of the verb in a noun-object-duration structure
12.1.3 Duration expressions and pronoun objects
12.1.4 Duration expressions in dative construction
12.1.5 Duration expressions and definite reference
12.2 Brief duration
12.2.1 Brief duration and instrumental objects
12.3 Frequency expressions
13 Verbs and complements
13.1 Complements
13.2 Complements of result
13.3 Potential complements
13.3.1 Potential complements using direction indicators
13.3.2 Metaphorical meanings of potential complements
13.4 Complements of manner and of consequential state
13.4.1 Modification of complement of manner
13.4.2 Complement of consequential state
13.4.3 Complements of manner or consequential state with a âverb + objectâ verb
13.4.4 Adjectival complements of manner in comparisons
13.4.5 Complement-of-manner comparison with a âverb + objectâ verb
13.5 Complement of location or destination
13.6 Degree complements
14 Verbs and adverbials
14.1 Adverbials of manner
14.1.1 Monosyllabic adjectives as adverbials of manner
14.1.2 Adverbials of manner with marked verbs
14.1.3 Adverbials of manner with unmarked verbs
14.1.4 Monosyllabic adverbial modifiers without de
14.1.5 Particular types of adverbials of manner
14.2 Attitudinal adverbial expressions
14.3 Referential adverbs
14.4 Referential adverbs with negatives
14.5 Order of sequence of referential adverbs
14.6 Order of adverbials in sequence
15 Modal and similar verbs
15.1 Modal, attitudinal and intentional verbs
15.2 Modal verbs
15.2.1 Modal verbs and adverbs of degree
15.2.2 Modal verbs and comparison
15.3 Attitudinal verbs
15.3.1 W ngle and j¬de
15.3.2 GÄox¬ng
15.4 Intentional verbs
15.4.1 Negation of intentional verbs
Part III Sentences
Introduction
16 Statements and the sentence particle le
16.1 Le as a sentence particle
16.2 Functions of sentence le
16.2.1 Summing-up function of le
16.2.2 Le as both sentence particle and aspect marker
16.3 Cases where sentence le is not used
16.4 Ultimate versatility of sentence le
17 Questions
17.1 Question-word questions
17.1.1 ZÄnmey ng
17.1.2 DuÅ in questions
17.1.3 Ne in questions
17.2 General questions with ma
17.3 Surmise questions with ba
17.4 Affirmative-negative questions
17.5 Alternative questions with h¡ish¬
17.6 Tags indicating suggestion
17.7 Tags seeking confirmation
17.8 Rhetorical questions
18 Subject and predicate; topic and comment
18.1 Dual patterning of sentence structures
18.2 Subject-predicate sentences
18.3 Topic-comment sentences
18.3.1 Further ways to form topic-comment sentences
18.4 Topic | subject-predicate sentences
18.4.1 Notional passive sentences
18.5 Subject | topic-comment sentences
19 Prepositions and coverbs
19.1 Coverbs
19.1.1 Coverbs of place and time
19.1.2 Coverbs of methods and means
19.1.3 Coverbs of human exchange and service
19.1.4 Coverbs of reference
19.1.5 Coverbs and comparison
19.2 Disyllabic prepositions
20 BÇ and b¨i constructions
20.1 The bÇ construction
20.1.1 The bÇ construction and complements
20.1.2 Le and zhe as complements in bÇ sentences
20.1.3 BÇ and resultative complements
20.1.4 N²ng and gÇo in bÇ sentences
20.1.5 Negative bÇ sentences
20.1.6 BÇ and modal verbs
20.1.7 BÇ and indefinite reference
20.2 The b¨i construction
20.2.1 R ng and ji o
20.2.2 The b¨i construction with an agent
20.2.3 Negative b¨i sentences
20.3 The b¨i construction versus the notional passives
21 Serial constructions
21.1 General features of serial constructions
21.2 Semantic varieties in serial constructions
21.3 Adjectives or state verbs in serial constructions
21.4 Dative constructions
21.5 Causative constructions
21.5.1 QÇng in a causative construction
21.5.2 Extended causative constructions
21.6 Extended serial constructions
22 Emphasis and the intensifier sh¬
22.1 Sh¬ as an intensifier
22.2 The sh¬ ⦠de construction
22.2.1 Subject and object emphasis in sh¬ ⦠de sentences
22.2.2 Sh¬ ⦠de construction and b¹
22.3 Sh¬ without de for progression and projection
22.3.1 Contexts for sh¬ (without de) sentences
22.3.2 Sh¬ and comparison
22.3.3 Sh¬ and negation
22.4 Sh¬ and topic-comment sentences
22.4.1 Sh¬ implying reservation
22.4.2 âVerb/adjective + sh¬ + verb/adjectiveâ implying reservation
22.5 Repetition and emphasis
23 Abbreviation and omission
23.1 Three types of abbreviation
23.2 Conventional abbreviations as subjectless sentences
23.3 Contextual abbreviation
23.4 Cotextual omissions
23.4.1 Cotextual omissions and headwords
23.4.2 Cotextual omissions in answers
23.4.3 Contextual/cotextual omissions in extended passages
24 Composite sentences: conjunctions and conjunctives
24.1 Types of composite sentence
24.2 Conjunctions and conjunctives
24.2.1 Meanings and functions of composite sentences
24.2.2 Paired conjunctives
24.3 Composite sentences as parallel structures
24.4 Verbs taking object clauses
25 Exclamations and interjections; appositions; and apostrophes
25.1 Exclamations
25.1.1 Exclamations with t i
25.1.2 Question-word questions as exclamations
25.2 Interjections
25.2.1 Tone variations in interjections
25.3 Appositions
25.4 People being addressed [apostrophe]
Part IV Paragraphs
Introduction
26.1 A diary
26.2 A letter
26.3 A dialogue
26.4 A welcome speech
26.5 A description
26.6 An explanatory piece of writing
The way to learn Chinese words
26.7 An argumentative piece of writing
Part V Speech habits: meaning and form
Introduction
27.1 Universal, cotextual or contextual omissions and abbreviations
27.1.1 Sentence patterns (1)
27.1.2 Sentence patterns (2)
27.2 Sentence extension following paragraph patterns
27.3 Further features of sentence extension
27.3.1 Sentences extended by illustration or exemplification
27.3.2 Sentences extended by reasoning
27.3.3 Sentences extended by detailing or amplification
27.3.4 Sentences extended by result or purpose
Part VI Writing conventions: classical quadrisyllabic patterns or idioms
Introduction
28.1 An overview of four-character or quadrisyllabic idioms
28.1.1 The distinction between quadrisyllabic patterns and quadrisyllabic idioms
28.1.2 The internal structure of quadrisyllabic idioms
28.2 Quadrisyllabic idioms at work
28.3 How quadrisyllabic idioms mix comfortably with other rhythms in writing
Part VII Contemporary developments in Chinese: new syntatctic and lexical tendencies
Introduction
29 Contemporary linguistic developments
29.1 New syntactic tendencies
29.1.1 Shift of word classes
29.1.2 Extensive use of pseudo-)suffixes or (pseudo-)prefixes
29.1.3 Multi-syllabic coinages on 'attributive + headword' syntactic pattern
29.2 New ways of lexicalisation
29.2.1 Direct borrowings
29.2.2 Semantic/phonetic calques (total or partial)
29.2.3 Intra-language transliterations
29.2 4 Internet neologisms
29.2.5 Neologisms occurring in conversational exchanges
29.2.6 Abbreviations from quadrisyllabic idioms
Glossary of grammatical terms
Index
