| Comparative Impacts of Fossil Fuels and Alternative Energy Sources | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Climate Change | p. 2 |
| The Urgent Need for Energy | p. 4 |
| The Environmental Impact of Energy | p. 7 |
| Carbon Capture and Storage | p. 8 |
| Stabilising Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations | p. 10 |
| Geo-Engineering as a Means of Stabilising Climate | p. 13 |
| Energy Sources, Energy Carriers and Energy Uses | p. 15 |
| A Matter of Scales | p. 17 |
| Small Carbon-Neutral Energy | p. 19 |
| Ocean Tides, Waves and Currents | p. 19 |
| Hydroenergy | p. 20 |
| Wind | p. 21 |
| Biomass | p. 21 |
| Geothermal | p. 22 |
| The Three Truly Big Energy Resources | p. 23 |
| Nuclear Energy | p. 23 |
| Solar Energy | p. 24 |
| Fossil Fuels with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage | p. 25 |
| Summary | p. 27 |
| Capture of Carbon Dioxide Directly from Ambient Air | p. 28 |
| A Revolution in the Energy Sector | p. 31 |
| Conclusions | p. 34 |
| Fossil Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Policy Development for Technology Deployment | p. 41 |
| Introduction | p. 41 |
| Reasons for Incentivising CCS Capture Projects | p. 43 |
| Tranches Model for Commercial-Scale Development and Deployment | p. 44 |
| Classes of Climate Change Mitigation Benefit with CCS | p. 46 |
| Features of Effective Incentives for Power Plants with CCS | p. 47 |
| Example CCS Incentives for the Electricity Sector | p. 50 |
| Site and Project-Specific Funding Options for First Tranche Plants | p. 50 |
| Electricity Emissions Performance Standards (EPSs) | p. 52 |
| A Sectoral CCS Standard | p. 54 |
| Scope for Retrofitting CCS and the Role for Carbon Capture Ready (CCR) Plants | p. 57 |
| Conclusions | p. 59 |
| Acknowledgements | p. 60 |
| Appendix A Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies Closest to Commercial Deployment | p. 60 |
| Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Australia | p. 65 |
| Background | p. 65 |
| CCS Programs and Strategies | p. 67 |
| General Policy | p. 67 |
| Governmental CCS Initiatives and Funding | p. 71 |
| Black Coal Mining Industry Initiatives | p. 73 |
| CCS R&D Activities in Australia | p. 74 |
| Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Research Organisation (CSIRO) | p. 75 |
| Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (CO2CRC) | p. 76 |
| Centre for Low Emission Technology (cLET) | p. 78 |
| University Research Activities | p. 79 |
| CCS Projects in Australia | p. 80 |
| Commercial-Scale Projects Incorporating CCS | p. 80 |
| Large-Scale Demonstration Projects | p. 83 |
| Pilot-Scale Demonstrations | p. 85 |
| Storage Projects | p. 86 |
| CCS Legislation and Regulation | p. 91 |
| Regulatory Guiding Principles | p. 91 |
| Commonwealth Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 (OPA) | p. 92 |
| State CCS Legislation | p. 94 |
| CCS Challenges in Australia | p. 96 |
| Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) | p. 102 |
| Introduction | p. 102 |
| A Brief History of UCG | p. 103 |
| The Economic Case for UCG | p. 105 |
| An Introduction to UCG Technology | p. 107 |
| Gasification Configuration and Control | p. 108 |
| Directional Drilling | p. 108 |
| Current Status of UCG Deployment Worldwide | p. 110 |
| UK and Europe | p. 110 |
| North America | p. 110 |
| Asia | p. 111 |
| Australia | p. 111 |
| Africa | p. 111 |
| Mechanism for Carbon Dioxide Storage in Gasified Coal Seam Voids | p. 111 |
| Approaches to Environmental Risk Assessment | p. 115 |
| Linking UCG to CCS | p. 118 |
| North East England Case Study | p. 121 |
| Concluding Remarks on Scale of Opportunity and Challenges | p. 123 |
| Towards Zero Emission Production - Potential of Carbon Capture in Energy Intensive Industry | p. 126 |
| Overview | p. 126 |
| Greenhouse Gas Reduction/Issues for Energy Intensive Industry | p. 126 |
| Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Cement Manufacture | p. 129 |
| Cement Manufacture | p. 129 |
| Incentives for Carbon Reduction | p. 131 |
| Costs Associated with Carbon Emissions | p. 135 |
| Options for Mitigation | p. 138 |
| Mitigation in Cement Manufacture | p. 138 |
| Carbon Capture and Cement Manufacture | p. 140 |
| Removing Barriers to Development | p. 145 |
| Conclusions | p. 150 |
| Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide | p. 155 |
| Introduction | p. 155 |
| Geology and CO2 Storage | p. 156 |
| Rock Characteristics | p. 156 |
| CO2 Properties and Geological Storage | p. 158 |
| Pressure | p. 162 |
| CO2 Storage through Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery | p. 165 |
| Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) | p. 165 |
| Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGS) | p. 166 |
| Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM) | p. 167 |
| Shale Gas | p. 167 |
| Storage Options | p. 168 |
| CO2 Storage in Salt Caverns | p. 168 |
| Underground Coal Gasification Cavities | p. 168 |
| CO2 Storage as CO2 Hydrates | p. 169 |
| CO2 Storage in Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks | p. 169 |
| Storage Capacity | p. 169 |
| The Resource Pyramid | p. 169 |
| Estimating Storage Capacity | p. 170 |
| Storage Site Operation | p. 171 |
| Geological Characterisation | p. 171 |
| Risk Assessment | p. 172 |
| Measurement, Monitoring and Verification (MMV) | p. 172 |
| Leakage | p. 173 |
| Public Awareness of CO2 Storage | p. 174 |
| Conclusions | p. 174 |
| Acknowledgements | p. 175 |
| Carbon Sequestration in Soils | p. 179 |
| Introduction to the Carbon Cycle in Soil | p. 179 |
| Plant Production | p. 180 |
| Decomposition | p. 180 |
| Soil Organic Matter | p. 182 |
| Characteristics and Age of Soil Carbon | p. 183 |
| Losses to Water | p. 183 |
| Factors Influencing Carbon Accumulation | p. 184 |
| Climate | p. 185 |
| Plant Inputs | p. 185 |
| Other Organic Inputs | p. 186 |
| Tillage | p. 187 |
| Grazing | p. 187 |
| Drainage/Irrigation | p. 187 |
| Erosion | p. 188 |
| Fire Cycles | p. 188 |
| Land-Cover Classes and their Carbon-Sequestration Characteristics | p. 189 |
| Arable | p. 189 |
| Grassland | p. 190 |
| Forest/Woodland | p. 190 |
| Semi-Natural | p. 190 |
| Land-Use Change | p. 190 |
| Climatic Zones other than Cool Temperate | p. 191 |
| Warm Temperate | p. 191 |
| Tropical | p. 191 |
| The Quantification of Carbon-Sequestration Strategies | p. 191 |
| Worldwide Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential | p. 192 |
| Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for Europe | p. 193 |
| Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for the UK | p. 195 |
| Biochar Additions | p. 195 |
| Other Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Equivalents | p. 197 |
| Whole Cycle Analysis | p. 198 |
| Limitations and Challenges | p. 198 |
| Realistic Goals | p. 198 |
| Upper Limits and Timescales | p. 200 |
| Competing Processes | p. 200 |
| Carbon Capture and Storage in Forests | p. 203 |
| Introduction: The Role of Forestry in Climate Change Mitigation | p. 203 |
| Carbon Pools and Flows in Forests | p. 206 |
| Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests: Several Implications from Europe | p. 211 |
| A Focus on the United Kingdom | p. 212 |
| A Focus on Transitional Countries of Ukraine and Slovakia | p. 214 |
| A Focus on The Netherlands | p. 217 |
| A Focus on Tropical Forests | p. 219 |
| Economic Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests | p. 221 |
| Uncertainties Pertaining to Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests | p. 226 |
| Social Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests | p. 229 |
| Conclusions | p. 232 |
| Carbon Uptake, Transport and Storage by Oceans and the Consequences of Change | p. 240 |
| Summary | p. 240 |
| Carbon Uptake by Oceans | p. 241 |
| Air-Sea Exchange of Carbon Dioxide and the Chemistry of Carbon in Sea water | p. 241 |
| Carbon Fixation and Controlling Factors | p. 243 |
| Carbon Transport and Storage by Oceans | p. 250 |
| The Solubility Pump | p. 250 |
| The Biological Pumps | p. 255 |
| Consequences of Too Little Uptake | p. 256 |
| Slow Down of the Physical Ocean Sink and Feedbacks to Climate | p. 256 |
| Changes in Net Primary Productivity | p. 257 |
| Consequences of Too Much Uptake | p. 260 |
| Ocean Acidification | p. 260 |
| Oxygen Depletion and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) | p. 269 |
| Methane Biogeochemistry and Carbon Stores in the Arctic Ocean: Hydrates and Permafrost | p. 285 |
| Introduction | p. 285 |
| Methane: Marine Sources and Sinks | p. 286 |
| Arctic Ocean Methane and Global Warming | p. 286 |
| Methane Hydrates | p. 287 |
| Methane Hydrates and Hydrate Stability | p. 287 |
| The 'Clathrate Gun' Hypothesis | p. 289 |
| Methane Hydrates - Arctic Ocean | p. 289 |
| Methane Hydrate Exploitation in the Arctic | p. 290 |
| Permafrost | p. 291 |
| Permafrost Relevance to Methane | p. 291 |
| Permafrost and Global Warming | p. 292 |
| Methane in the Arctic Ocean | p. 292 |
| Distribution, Sources and Sinks | p. 292 |
| Methane and Sea-Ice | p. 294 |
| Conclusions | p. 295 |
| Subject Index | p. 301 |
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