Bumblebees

Chapter 1: Introduction -- Evolution and Phylogeny -- The Life Cycle -- Chapter 2: Thermoregulation -- Warming Up -- Controlling Heat Loss -- Thermoregulation of the Nest -- Chapter 3: Social Organization and Conflict -- Caste Determination -- Division of Labour -- Sex Determination -- Control of Reproduction and Queen-Worker Conflicts -- Time of Reproduction -- Matricide -- Sex Rations in True Bumblebees -- Sex Ratios in Psithyrus -- Chapter 4: Finding a Mate -- Territoriality -- Nest Surveillance -- Hilltopping -- Scent-Marking and Patrolling -- Inbreeding Avoidance -- Evolution of Male Mate-Location Behaviour -- Queen-Produced Sex Attractants -- Monogamy Versus Polyandry -- Chapter 5: Natural Elements -- True Predators -- Parasitoids -- Conopidae (Diptera) -- Sarcophagidae (Diptera) -- Braconidae (Hymenoptera) -- Mutilidae (Hymenoptera) -- Parasites and Commensals -- Viruses -- Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Others) -- Fungi -- Protozoa -- Nematodes -- Mites (Acarina) -- Other Commensals -- The Immune System of Bumblebees -- Social Parasitism -- Nest Usurpation -- Social Parasitism By Drifting Workers -- Cuckoo Bees (Psithyrus) -- Chapter 6: Foraging Economics -- Measuring Foraging Range -- Marking Experiments and Direct Observation -- Modeling Foraging Range -- Homing Experiments -- Radar Tracking -- Mass-Marking and Pollen Analysis -- Do Bumblebees Forage Close to Their Nests? -- Differences Between Bumblebee Species -- Management Implications -- Chapter 7: Exploitation of Patchy Resources -- The Ideal Free Distribution -- Search Patterns Within Patches -- Non-Random Choice of Patches -- The Marginal Value Theorem -- Chapter 8: Choice of Flower Species -- Learning and Flower Constancy -- Explanations for Flower Constancy -- Can Flowers Be Cryptic? -- Infidelity in Flower Choice -- Variation in Learning Ability -- Coping with Deceptive Unrewarding Flowers -- The Influence of Pollen Quality on Flower Choice -- Chapter 9: Intraspecific Floral Choices -- Direct Detection of Rewards -- Flower Size -- Flower Age -- Flower Sex -- Flower Symmetry -- Floral Scent -- Thermal Rewards -- Motivation and Choosiness -- Chapter 10: Foraging Cues Gained for Other Bees -- Communication in the Nest -- Visual Responses to Other Bees on Flowers -- Scent Marking of Flowers -- Repellent Versus Attractant Marks -- The Evolution of Scent Making -- Chapter 11: Competition and Niche Differentiation in Bumblebee Communities -- Chapter 12: Bumblebees as Pollinators -- Pollination of Crops -- Honeybees Versus Bumblebees -- Approaches to Enhancing Bumblebee Pollination -- Pollination of Wild Flowers -- Nectar Robbing -- Chapter 13: Conservation -- Causes of Declining Bumblebee Numbers -- Loss of Habitat -- Pesticides -- Impacts of Non-Native Bees and Commercial Beekeeping -- Population Structure and Habitat Fragmentation -- Do Bumblebees Suffer From Inbreeding Depression? -- Why Are Some Bumblebee Species Still Abundant? -- Consequences of Declining Bumblebee Numbers -- Conservation Strategies -- Enhancing Bumblebee Diversity in Farmland -- Field Margin Management and Wildflower Strips -- Restoring and Maintaining Species-Rich Grasslands -- Providing Nest Sites -- Organic Farming -- The Importance of Urban Areas -- Translocations and Reintroduction -- Chapter 14: Bumblebees Abroad - Effects of Introduced Bees -- Competition With Native Organisms for Floral Resources -- Effects of Foraging of Native Organisms -- Evidence for Population-Level Changes in Native Organisms -- Competition for Nest Sites -- Introgression With Native Bees -- Transmission of Parasites or Pathogens to Native Organisms -- Effects on Pollination of Native Flora -- Pollination of Exotic Weeds