List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xix
Introduction xxi
Part I Getting to Sounds 1
1 The Speech System and Basic Anatomy 3
1.1 The Speech Chain 3
1.1.1 The speech production chain 6
1.2 The Building Blocks of Articulatory Phonetics 7
1.2.1 Materials in the body 9
1.3 The Tools of Articulatory Phonetics 10
Exercises 12
References 13
2 Where It All Starts: The Central Nervous System 15
2.1 The Basic Units of the Nervous System 15
2.1.1 The action potential: how the nervous system communicates 18
2.2 The Central Nervous System 19
2.2.1 Speech areas in the brain 22
2.3 Measuring the Brain: fMRI, PET, EEG, MEG, TMS 27
Exercises 30
References 31
3 From Thought to Movement: The Peripheral Nervous System 33
3.1 The Peripheral Nervous System 33
3.1.1 Cranial nerves 34
3.1.2 Spinal nerves 36
3.2 How Muscles Move 38
3.3 Measuring Muscles: EMG 41
3.3.1 The speed of thought to movement 43
Exercises 45
References 46
4 From Movement to Flow: Respiration 47
4.1 Breathing Basics 47
4.1.1 Two principles for respiration 47
4.1.2 Lung volumes 48
4.1.3 Measuring lung volume 50
4.2 The Anatomy of Breathing 51
4.2.1 The lungs 51
4.2.2 The hard parts: bones and cartilages of respiration 53
4.2.3 Passive forces of breathing 57
4.2.4 Inspiratory muscles 57
4.2.5 Expiratory muscles 61
4.2.6 The respiratory cycle revisited 64
4.3 Measuring Airfl ow and Pressure: Pneumotachograph 66
4.4 Sounds 67
4.4.1 /h/ 67
4.4.2 Pitch and loudness 68
Exercises 68
References 69
5 From Flow to Sound 71
5.1 Intrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 71
5.1.1 The hard parts 72
5.1.2 Intrinsic laryngeal muscles 74
5.2 Sounds: The Voice 78
5.2.1 Modal phonation 78
5.2.2 Theories of modal phonation 80
5.2.3 Pitch control 86
5.2.4 Voicelessness 89
5.3 Measuring the Vocal Folds: EGG 90
Exercises 91
References 94
Part II Articulating Sounds 97
6 Articulating Laryngeal Sounds 99
6.1 Extrinsic Laryngeal Anatomy 100
6.1.1 The hard parts 100
6.1.2 Extrinsic laryngeal muscles 101
6.2 Sounds 106
6.2.1 Non-modal phonation types 106
6.2.2 The glottalic airstream mechanism 114
6.3 Measuring Laryngeal Articulations: Endoscopy 118
Exercises 120
References 122
7 Articulating Velic Sounds 125
7.1 Anatomy of the Velum 125
7.1.1 The hard parts 126
7.1.2 Muscles of the velum 129
7.2 Sounds 134
7.2.1 The oral-nasal distinction: more on the VPP 134
7.2.2 Uvular constrictions: the oropharyngeal isthmus 136
7.3 Measuring the Velum: X-ray Video 138
Exercises 140
References 141
8 Articulating Vowels 143
8.1 The Jaw and Extrinsic Tongue Muscles 146
8.1.1 The hard parts 146
8.1.2 Jaw muscles 148
8.1.3 Extrinsic tongue muscles 152
8.2 Sounds: Vowels 154
8.2.1 High front vowels 156
8.2.2 High back vowels 156
8.2.3 Low vowels 157
8.2.4 ATR and RTR 159
8.3 Measuring Vowels: Ultrasound 160
Exercises 163
References 164
9 Articulating Lingual Consonants 167
9.1 The Intrinsic Tongue Muscles 167
9.1.1 The transversus and verticalis muscles 168
9.1.2 The longitudinal muscles 170
9.2 Sounds: Lingual Consonants 171
9.2.1 Degrees of constriction and tongue bracing 171
9.2.2 Locations of constriction 176
9.3 Measuring Lingual Consonants: Palatography and Linguography 180
Exercises 182
References 186
10 Articulating Labial Sounds 189
10.1 Muscles of the Lips and Face 192
10.1.1 The amazing OO 192
10.1.2 Other lip and face muscles 194
10.2 Sounds: Making Sense of [labial] 196
10.3 Measuring the Lips and Face: Point Tracking and Video 198
Exercises 202
References 203
11 Putting Articulations Together 205
11.1 Coordinating Movements 205
11.1.1 Context-sensitive models 207
11.1.2 Context-invariant models 207
11.1.3 Unifying theories 209
11.2 Coordinating Complex Sounds 210
11.2.1 Lingual-lingual sounds 211
11.2.2 Other complex sounds 216
11.3 Coarticulation 217
11.3.1 Articulatory overlap 218
11.3.2 Articulatory confl ict 219
11.3.3 Modeling coarticulation 220
11.4 Measuring the Whole Vocal Tract: Tomography 221
Exercises 225
References 225
Abbreviations Used in this Book 229
Muscles with Innervation, Origin, and Insertion 233
Index 243
