| Background-Free Apertureless Near-Field Optical Imaging | p. 1 |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| Principles of Apertureless SNOM | p. 3 |
| The Homodyne Apertureless SNOM Concept | p. 5 |
| The Heterodyne and Pseudo-Heterodyne Apertureless SNOM Concepts | p. 8 |
| Interpretation of the Measured Near-Field Signal in the Presence of a Background | p. 9 |
| Noninterferometric Detection | p. 9 |
| Interferometric Detection | p. 12 |
| Artifacts in Apertureless SNOM and Identification Criteria | p. 14 |
| New Techniques for Background Removal | p. 17 |
| Applications of Elastic-Scattering Apertureless SNOM | p. 17 |
| Material-Specific Imaging | p. 18 |
| Phase Mapping in Metallic Nanostructures and Optical Waveguides | p. 19 |
| Tip-Induced Resonances in Polaritonic Samples | p. 22 |
| Applications to Identification of Biosamples | p. 24 |
| Subsurface Imaging and Superlensing | p. 25 |
| Conclusions | p. 27 |
| References | p. 27 |
| Critical Dimension Atomic Force Microscopy for Sub-50-nm Microelectronics Technology Nodes | p. 31 |
| Introduction | p. 32 |
| AFM for Semiconductor and Data Storage Industries | p. 32 |
| Scanning Modes: Tapping Versus Deep Trench and CD Mode | p. 32 |
| Specialty Probes | p. 34 |
| Reference Metrology System and Semiconductor Production | p. 34 |
| Requirements for Metrology Tools | p. 37 |
| AFM as a Reference Metrology System | p. 37 |
| AFM as an In-Line Metrology System | p. 39 |
| Image Analysis for Accurate Metrology | p. 40 |
| Background | p. 40 |
| Conventional Tip Characterization and Image Reconstruction | p. 41 |
| CD Tip Shape Parameters | p. 44 |
| CD Tip Shape Characterization Techniques | p. 44 |
| CD Image (Reentrant) Reconstruction Algorithms | p. 47 |
| Metrology Applications | p. 52 |
| Examples within Process Control | p. 52 |
| "Fingerprinting" of Sample Features | p. 54 |
| Developments in Probe Fabrication | p. 60 |
| Tip-Sample Interactions: Tip Shape, Stiffness, and Tip Wear | p. 61 |
| Tip Wear and Surface Modification | p. 64 |
| Application-Oriented Probe Designs | p. 67 |
| Outlook: CD AFM Technologies for 45-/32-/22-nm Nodes | p. 70 |
| Measuring Sub-50-nm Devices: System Requirements | p. 70 |
| Probe Technology for 45-/32-nm Structures | p. 71 |
| References | p. 73 |
| Near Field Probes: From Optical Fibers to Optical Nanoantennas | p. 77 |
| Introduction | p. 77 |
| Conventional Microscopy and Near-Field Optical Techniques | p. 78 |
| The Probe | p. 84 |
| Aperture SNOM Probes | p. 85 |
| The Apertureless Probe: Optical Nanoantennas | p. 118 |
| Applications and Perspectives | p. 127 |
| References | p. 129 |
| Carbon Nanotubes as SPM Tips: Mechanical Properties of Nanotube Tips and Imaging | p. 137 |
| Introduction | p. 138 |
| CNT Tip Fabrication | p. 140 |
| MWCNTs and Fusing | p. 141 |
| SWCNTs and Direct Growth | p. 144 |
| Controlling and Tailoring the Properties of CNT Tips | p. 148 |
| Understanding the Mechanical Properties of CNT Tips: A Dynamical SPM Frequency Modulation Study | p. 149 |
| Mechanical Properties of CNTs | p. 149 |
| Mechanical Properties of CNT Tips | p. 150 |
| Mechanical Properties of CNT Tips in Dynamical Experiments: Competition Between Elasticity and Adhesion | p. 151 |
| Experimental Signals | p. 155 |
| Mechanical Properties of MWCNTs | p. 158 |
| Mechanical Properties of SWCNTs: Main Adhesive Contribution | p. 163 |
| Comparison of Mechanical Properties of CNTs | p. 166 |
| Special cases | p. 170 |
| Imaging | p. 174 |
| Literature Tour | p. 174 |
| Using the Mechanical Properties of CNTs for Imaging | p. 174 |
| Conclusion | p. 176 |
| References | p. 178 |
| Scanning Probes for the Life Sciences | p. 183 |
| Introduction | p. 183 |
| Microarray Technology | p. 184 |
| Microcontact Printing | p. 185 |
| Optical Lithography | p. 186 |
| Protein Arrays | p. 188 |
| Nanoarray Technology | p. 189 |
| The Push for Nanoscale Detection | p. 189 |
| Probe-Based Patterning | p. 191 |
| Alternative Patterning Methods | p. 202 |
| Nanoscale Deposition Mechanisms | p. 204 |
| AFM Parallelization | p. 207 |
| One-Dimensional Arrays | p. 208 |
| Two-Dimensional Arrays | p. 209 |
| Future Prospects for Nanoprobes | p. 212 |
| References | p. 214 |
| Self-Sensing Cantilever Sensor for Bioscience | p. 219 |
| Introduction | p. 219 |
| Basics of the Cantilever Mass Sensor | p. 220 |
| Finite Element Method Simulation of the Cantilever Vibration | p. 223 |
| Detection of Cantilever Deflection | p. 226 |
| Using a Position Sensor | p. 226 |
| Using a Piezoresistive Sensor | p. 227 |
| Self-Sensing Systems | p. 232 |
| Vibration Systems | p. 232 |
| Vibration-Frequency Detection Systems | p. 232 |
| Applications | p. 233 |
| Water Molecule Detection in Air | p. 233 |
| Antigen and Antibody Detection in Water | p. 238 |
| Prospective Applications | p. 244 |
| References | p. 244 |
| AFM Sensors in Scanning Electron and Ion Microscopes: Tools for Nanomechanics, Nanoanalytics, and Nanofabrication | p. 247 |
| Introduction | p. 248 |
| Description of Standalone Techniques | p. 250 |
| FEB/FIB Nanofabrication | p. 250 |
| Cantilever as a Static Force Sensor | p. 255 |
| Cantilever as a Resonating Mass Sensor | p. 255 |
| Nanomanipulation | p. 256 |
| Fundamentals of Cantilever-Based Sensors | p. 257 |
| Static Operation-Force Sensors | p. 257 |
| Dynamic Operation-Mass Sensors | p. 258 |
| Sensor Scaling | p. 263 |
| Cantilever Calibration | p. 264 |
| Temperature Stability | p. 265 |
| Piezoresistive Detection | p. 267 |
| Analytics at the Nanoscale | p. 268 |
| Nanomechanics | p. 268 |
| Cantilever-Based Gravimetry | p. 276 |
| Atomic Force Microscopy in a SEM | p. 282 |
| Perspectives and Outlook | p. 283 |
| References | p. 284 |
| Cantilever Spring-Constant Calibration in Atomic Force Microscopy | p. 289 |
| Introduction | p. 289 |
| Applications of AFM | p. 291 |
| Force Measurements and Spring-Constant Calibration | p. 292 |
| Theoretical Methods | p. 292 |
| V-Shaped Cantilevers and the Parallel-Beam Approximation | p. 293 |
| Dynamic Experimental Methods | p. 295 |
| Thermal Methods | p. 297 |
| Repeatability in AFM Force Measurements | p. 299 |
| z-Axis Displacement Repeatability | p. 300 |
| Cantilever Deflection Repeatability | p. 300 |
| Microfabricated Devices for AFM Force Calibration | p. 302 |
| Lateral Force Calibration | p. 308 |
| References | p. 312 |
| Frequency Modulation Atomic Force Microscopy in Liquids | p. 315 |
| Introduction | p. 315 |
| Instrumentation | p. 318 |
| Basic Setup for FM-AFM | p. 318 |
| Cantilever Excitation in a Liquid | p. 319 |
| Cantilever-Deflection Detection | p. 320 |
| Applications | p. 326 |
| Nonbiological Systems | p. 326 |
| Biological Systems | p. 327 |
| Theoretical Framework for Quantitative FM-AFM Force Measurements | p. 332 |
| Decomposition of Interaction Force | p. 332 |
| Governing Equations | p. 335 |
| Fundamental Conditions on Interaction Force | p. 336 |
| Determination of Forces | p. 337 |
| Validation of Formulas | p. 339 |
| Operation in a Fluid | p. 340 |
| Governing Equations and Resonance Frequency in a Fluid | p. 340 |
| Validation of FM-AFM Force Measurements in a Liquid | p. 342 |
| Phase Detuning in FM-AFM | p. 343 |
| Governing Equations for Arbitrary Phase Shift | p. 344 |
| Coupling of Conservative and Dissipative Forces | p. 345 |
| Operation of FM-AFM Away From the Resonance Frequency | p. 346 |
| Calibration of 90[degree] Phase Shift | p. 346 |
| Future Prospects | p. 348 |
| References | p. 349 |
| Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy: Recent Advances and Applications | p. 351 |
| Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy | p. 351 |
| Sensitivity and Spatial Resolution in KPFM | p. 354 |
| Tip-Sample Electrostatic Interaction | p. 354 |
| A Fast Algorithm for Calculating the Electrostatic Force | p. 356 |
| Noise in KPFM Images | p. 359 |
| Deconvolution of KPFM Images | p. 360 |
| Measurement of Semiconductor Surface States | p. 362 |
| Surface Charge and Band Bending Measurements | p. 362 |
| Measuring the Energy Distribution of the Surface States | p. 365 |
| Organic Semiconductors: Bulk Density of States | p. 368 |
| References | p. 374 |
| Application of Scanning Capacitance Microscopy to Analysis at the Nanoscale | p. 377 |
| Introduction | p. 377 |
| Capacitance Microscopes | p. 379 |
| Resolution of Capacitance Transducers | p. 382 |
| Stray Capacitance of the Probe | p. 387 |
| Sensitivity of the Probe | p. 392 |
| SCM Operation Modes | p. 399 |
| Looking at the Invisible-Capacitance Contrast | p. 400 |
| Semiconductor Analysis | p. 401 |
| Other Semiconductor Structures | p. 405 |
| Looking Deeper | p. 406 |
| Impedance Spectroscopy | p. 407 |
| Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy | p. 408 |
| Optimising the Experimental Conditions | p. 414 |
| Conclusions | p. 416 |
| References | p. 417 |
| Probing Electrical Transport Properties at the Nanoscale by Current-Sensing Atomic Force Microscopy | p. 421 |
| Introduction | p. 421 |
| Fundamentals of Electrical Transport Properties: Resistance, Impedance and Noise | p. 424 |
| Experimental Setups for CS-AFM | p. 429 |
| Conductive Probes | p. 429 |
| Operating Modes of AFM | p. 431 |
| Current Detection Instrumentation | p. 432 |
| Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy | p. 434 |
| Nanoscale Impedance Microscopy | p. 437 |
| Electrical Noise Microscopy | p. 443 |
| Conclusions | p. 445 |
| References | p. 446 |
| Subject Index | p. 451 |
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