Additives in Polymers

Foreword ix
Preface xi
About the Author xiii
Acknowledgements xv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Additives 2
1.2 Plastics formulations 5
1.3 Economic impact of polymer additives 9
1.4 Analysis of plastics 11
1.5 Bibliography 23
1.6 References 24

Chapter 2 Deformulation Principles 29
2.1 Polymer identification 30
2.2 Additive analysis of rubbers: âBest Practiceâ 32
2.3 Polymer extract analysis 42
2.4 In situ polymer/additive analysis 46
2.5 Class-specific polymer/additive analysis 47
2.6 Bibliography 48
2.7 References 48

Chapter 3 Sample Preparation Perspectives 51
3.1 Solvents 54
3.2 Extraction strategy 57
3.3 Conventional extraction technologies 59
3.4 High-pressure solvent extraction methods 81
3.5 Sorbent extraction 123
3.6 Methodological comparison of extraction methods 134
3.7 Polymer/additive dissolution methods 146
3.8 Hydrolysis 152
3.9 Bibliography 155
3.10 References 156

Chapter 4 Separation Techniques 171
4.1 Analytical detectors 177
4.2 Gas chromatography 181
4.4 Liquid chromatography techniques 217
4.5 Capillary electrophoretic techniques 273
4.6 Bibliography 278
4.7 References 281

Chapter 5 Polymer/Additive Analysis: The Spectroscopic Alternative 299
5.1 Ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry 302
5.2 Infrared spectroscopy 311
5.3 Luminescence spectroscopy 318
5.4 High-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 323
5.5 Bibliography 342
5.6 References 342

Chapter 6 Organic Mass-Spectrometric Methods 349
6.1 Basic instrumentation 351
6.2 Ion sources 357
6.3 Mass analysers 386
6.4 Direct mass-spectrometric polymer compound analysis 407
6.5 Ion mobility spectrometry 415
6.6 Bibliography 417
6.7 References 418

Chapter 7 Multihyphenation and Multidimensionality in Polymer/Additive Analysis 425
7.1 Precolumn hyphenation 428
7.3 Postcolumn hyphenation 452
7.4 Multidimensional chromatography 545
7.5 Multidimensional spectroscopy 560
7.6 Bibliography 562
7.7 References 564

Chapter 8 Inorganic and Element Analytical Methods 585
8.1 Element analytical protocols 587
8.2 Sample destruction for classical elemental analysis 591
8.3 Analytical atomic spectrometry 605
8.4 X-ray spectrometry 627
8.5 Inorganic mass spectrometry 648
8.6 Radioanalytical and nuclear analytical methods 662
8.7 Electroanalytical techniques 666
8.8 Solid-state speciation analysis 674
8.9 Bibliography 677
8.10 References 679

Chapter 9 Direct Methods of Deformulation of Polymer/Additive Dissolutions 691
9.1 Chromatographic methods 692
9.2 Spectroscopic techniques 696
9.3 Mass-spectrometric methods 701
9.4 References 709

Chapter 10 A Vision for the Future 711
10.1 Trends in polymer technology 712
10.2 Trends in additive technology 715
10.3 Environmental, legislative and regulatory constraints 723
10.4 Analytical consequences 725
10.5 Epilogue 746
10.6 Bibliography 747
10.7 References 747

Appendix I List of Symbols 751
Appendix II Functionality of Common Additives Used in Commercial Thermoplastics, Rubbers and Thermosetting Resin 773
Appendix III Specimen Polymer Additives Product Sheets 793

Index 803