| List of tables | p. xi |
| Foreword | p. xii |
| Acknowledgements | p. xiv |
| List of abbreviations | p. xv |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| So-called 'non-lethal' weapons | p. 1 |
| Questioning benign intent | p. 3 |
| Alternatives to lethal force? Or compliance tools? | p. 4 |
| Lethality by design | p. 5 |
| Disingenuous advocacy | p. 6 |
| The end of 'non-lethal' weapons? | p. 7 |
| The technological imperative | p. 9 |
| Chapter overview | p. 10 |
| The Early History of 'Non-Lethal' Weapons | p. 12 |
| The 1960s and 1970s: The new riot control | p. 12 |
| Irritant chemical weapons: From CN to CS | p. 16 |
| Blunt impact projectiles: Inaccuracy and injury | p. 20 |
| Electrical weapons: From torture to Taser | p. 21 |
| The technological imagination | p. 23 |
| Legal issues: Chemical and biological arms control | p. 29 |
| The 1980s: Relative quiet | p. 31 |
| A police research programme | p. 31 |
| Emerging military concepts | p. 33 |
| Electrical weapons: 'Stun guns' hit the streets | p. 34 |
| Other technical developments | p. 35 |
| Legal issues: Controlling inhumane weapons | p. 37 |
| Conclusion | p. 38 |
| 'Non-Lethal' Weapons in the 1990s | p. 40 |
| Policing developments | p. 40 |
| Cooperation and collaboration | p. 40 |
| Influential events | p. 42 |
| New technologies for policing | p. 43 |
| International connections | p. 46 |
| Military developments | p. 47 |
| Advocates and emerging concepts | p. 47 |
| Disparate research efforts | p. 49 |
| Operational cement | p. 51 |
| Secrecy | p. 51 |
| Policy and prioritisation | p. 52 |
| Technology investment | p. 55 |
| Institutionalising 'non-lethal' weapons | p. 57 |
| Following the US lead | p. 58 |
| Irritant chemical weapons: 'Pepper spray' preferred | p. 59 |
| Electrical weapons: Raising the voltage | p. 60 |
| Other technologies | p. 62 |
| Legal issues: Consensus on chemicals and lasers | p. 65 |
| Conclusion | p. 68 |
| The Contemporary Development of 'Non-Lethal' Weapons | p. 70 |
| Police developments | p. 70 |
| Safety and effectiveness | p. 70 |
| The influence of 9/11 | p. 70 |
| Programme drivers | p. 71 |
| Funding research | p. 72 |
| UK alternatives to the plastic bullet | p. 78 |
| Military developments | p. 80 |
| Defining research and development needs | p. 80 |
| Secrecy and 9/11 | p. 84 |
| Lack of institutional support and funding | p. 84 |
| Current 'non-lethal' weapons capabilities | p. 86 |
| Current weapons development programmes | p. 86 |
| Key research players | p. 91 |
| Emerging research and development focus | p. 92 |
| Increasing institutional support? | p. 93 |
| NATO studies | p. 94 |
| Irritant chemical weapons: The rise of PAVA | p. 94 |
| Blunt impact projectiles: Continuing injury concerns | p. 95 |
| Electrical weapons: Taser expansion and diversification | p. 96 |
| Other technologies | p. 97 |
| Legal issues: Stresses on international law | p. 101 |
| Conclusion | p. 102 |
| Chemical and Biochemical Weapons | p. 105 |
| Definitions | p. 105 |
| Past programmes | p. 107 |
| 'Off the rocker' and 'on the floor' | p. 107 |
| Advanced Riot Control Agent Dervice (ARCAD) | p. 111 |
| Contemporary programmes | p. 118 |
| Potential payloads | p. 118 |
| Weaponisation: Delivery systems | p. 129 |
| Major themes | p. 133 |
| Technical realities | p. 133 |
| Pushing the legal boundaries | p. 136 |
| Advocacy | p. 138 |
| The role of scientists and public opinion | p. 140 |
| Conclusion | p. 142 |
| Directed Energy Weapons | p. 143 |
| Definitions | p. 143 |
| Lasers | p. 144 |
| Radio frequency, microwave, and millimeter wave beams | p. 146 |
| Low energy laser weapons | p. 146 |
| Past programmes | p. 146 |
| Contemporary programmes: 'Dazzling' lasers | p. 150 |
| High energy laser weapons | p. 156 |
| Laser-induced plasma: The Pulsed Energy Projectile | p. 157 |
| Wireless electrical weapons | p. 161 |
| Thermal lasers | p. 162 |
| Radio frequency, microwave, and millimetre wave weapons | p. 162 |
| Past programmes: Death rays and mind control | p. 162 |
| Contemporary programmes: Active Denial and 'controlled effects' | p. 166 |
| Major themes | p. 177 |
| Low energy laser weapons | p. 177 |
| High energy laser weapons | p. 178 |
| Radio frequency, microwave, and millimetre wave weapons | p. 180 |
| Conclusion | p. 184 |
| Acoustic Weapons | p. 186 |
| Definitions | p. 186 |
| Past interest: Psychological operations | p. 188 |
| Weapons programmes during the 1990s | p. 190 |
| Perpetuating myths | p. 191 |
| The NLAW programme | p. 191 |
| Testing prototypes | p. 192 |
| Vortex rings | p. 194 |
| The end of the road? | p. 195 |
| Contemporary developments | p. 195 |
| The Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) | p. 195 |
| An acoustic weapon? | p. 197 |
| Persistent research and development | p. 199 |
| Underwater weapons | p. 201 |
| A failed enterprise | p. 202 |
| Major themes | p. 204 |
| Failed attempts | p. 204 |
| Limits of technical advances | p. 204 |
| Misinformation | p. 204 |
| Legal evasion | p. 205 |
| Conclusion | p. 205 |
| Conclusion | p. 206 |
| The police-military divide | p. 206 |
| Conflict as a catalyst | p. 208 |
| A failed revolution? | p. 208 |
| Drugs and the mind | p. 209 |
| Directed-energy evolution | p. 210 |
| Acoustic murmurings | p. 211 |
| Organisation and funding | p. 211 |
| Fixing policy | p. 212 |
| Untangling the concept | p. 212 |
| Semantics and reason | p. 213 |
| Avoiding a chemical and biological weapons renaissance | p. 214 |
| Directed energy weapons: Opportunities for preventative arms control? | p. 215 |
| Acoustic weapons: Misguided efforts | p. 216 |
| Complying with International humanitarian law | p. 216 |
| New technologies, profound concerns | p. 217 |
| Avoiding mission creep | p. 217 |
| Continued scrutiny | p. 218 |
| Notes | p. 220 |
| Index | p. 295 |
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