Preface xiii
About the Companion Website xv
1 What Is Welding Engineering? 1
1.1 Introduction to Welding Processes 1
2 Arc Welding Processes 3
2.1 Fundamentals and Principles of Arc Welding 3
2.1.1 Fundamentals of an Electric Arc 5
2.1.2 Arc Voltage 6
2.1.3 Polarity 7
2.1.4 Heat Input 9
2.1.5 Welding Position 10
2.1.6 Filler Metals and Electrodes 11
2.1.7 Shielding 11
2.1.7.1 Gas Shielding 11
2.1.7.2 Flux Shielding 12
2.1.8 Weld Joints and Weld Types for Arc Welding 13
2.1.9 Primary Operating Variables in Arc Welding 14
2.1.9.1 Voltage 14
2.1.9.2 Current 14
2.1.9.3 Electrode Feed Rate/Wire Feed Speed 15
2.1.9.4 Welding Travel Speed 15
2.1.10 Metal Transfer Mode 16
2.1.11 Arc Blow 16
2.1.12 Common Arc Welding Defects and Discontinuities 17
2.2 Arc Welding Power Supplies 17
2.2.1 Transformers 18
2.2.2 Generators 18
2.2.3 Important Electrical Elements in Arc Welding Power Supplies 20
2.2.4 Volt-Ampere Characteristic of Arc Welding Power Supplies 23
2.2.5 Duty Cycle 26
2.2.6 Modern Advanced Arc Welding Power Supplies 27
2.3 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 30
2.4 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 36
2.5 Plasma Arc Welding 44
2.6 Gas Metal Arc Welding 47
2.7 Flux Cored Arc Welding 55
2.8 Submerged Arc Welding 58
2.9 Other Arc Welding Processes 63
2.9.1 Electrogas Welding 63
2.9.2 Electroslag Welding 63
2.9.3 Arc Stud Welding 65
2.10 Test Your Knowledge 68
3 Resistance Welding Processes 69
3.1 Fundamentals and Principles of Resistance Welding Processes 69
3.1.1 Resistance and Resistivity 69
3.1.2 Current Range and Lobe Curves 72
3.1.3 Modern Equipment and Power Supplies 74
3.2 Resistance Spot Welding 75
3.3 Resistance Seam Welding 79
3.4 Resistance Projection Welding 81
3.5 High Frequency Welding 83
3.6 Flash Welding 85
3.7 Test Your Knowledge 88
4 Solid-State Welding Processes 91
4.1 Fundamentals and Principles of Solid-State Welding 91
4.1.1 Solid-State Welding Theory 91
4.1.2 Roll Bonding Theory 92
4.2 Friction Welding Processes 93
4.2.1 Inertia Friction Welding 94
4.2.2 Continuous Drive Friction Welding 96
4.2.3 Linear Friction Welding 97
4.2.4 Friction Stir Welding 98
4.3 Other Solid-State Welding Processes 101
4.3.1 Diffusion Welding 101
4.3.2 Explosion Welding 104
4.3.3 Ultrasonic Welding 106
4.4 Test Your Knowledge 110
5 High-Energy Density Welding Processes 111
5.1 Fundamentals and Principles of High-Energy Density Welding 111
5.1.1 Power Density 111
5.1.2 Keyhole Mode Welding 113
5.2 Laser Beam Welding 113
5.3 Electron Beam Welding 116
5.4 Test Your Knowledge 118
6 Other Approaches to Welding and Joining 121
6.1 Brazing and Soldering 121
6.2 Welding of Plastics 123
6.2.1 Hot Tool (Plate) Welding 124
6.2.2 Hot Gas Welding 125
6.2.3 Implant Induction Welding 126
6.2.4 Ultrasonic Welding 126
6.2.5 Vibration Welding 127
6.3 Adhesive Bonding 128
6.4 Novel and Hybrid Welding Processes 128
6.5 Additive Manufacturing 131
6.6 Oxyfuel Welding and Cutting 132
6.7 Other Cutting Processes 137
6.7.1 Plasma Cutting 137
6.7.2 Laser Beam Cutting 138
6.7.3 Air Carbon Arc Gouging 138
6.8 Test Your Knowledge 140
7 Design Considerations for Welding 141
7.1 Introduction to Welding Design 141
7.2 Mechanical Properties 141
7.2.1 Yield Strength 141
7.2.2 Tensile Strength 142
7.2.3 Ductility 142
7.2.4 Fatigue Strength 142
7.2.5 Toughness 142
7.2.6 Mechanical Properties—Effect of Temperature 144
7.3 Physical Properties 144
7.3.1 Thermal Conductivity 144
7.3.2 Melting Temperature 144
7.3.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 145
7.3.4 Electrical Conductivity 145
7.4 Design Elements for Welded Connections 145
7.4.1 Joint and Weld Types 145
7.4.2 Joint and Weld Type Selection Considerations 148
7.4.3 Weld Joint Nomenclature—Groove Welds 150
7.4.4 Weld Joint Nomenclature—Fillet Welds 151
7.4.5 Welding Positions 151
7.5 Welding Symbols 154
7.6 Weld Sizing 159
7.7 Computational Modeling of Welds 162
7.8 Test Your Knowledge 164
8 Heat Flow, Residual Stress, and Distortion 165
8.1 Heat Flow 165
8.2 Fundamentals and Principles of Residual Stress and Distortion 169
8.3 Approaches to Minimizing or Eliminating Distortion 172
8.4 Test Your Knowledge 176
9 Welding Metallurgy 177
9.1 Introduction to Welding Metallurgy 177
9.2 The Fusion Zone 179
9.3 The Partially Melted Zone 180
9.4 The Heat?Affected Zone (HAZ) 182
9.5 Introduction to Phase Diagrams 183
9.6 Test Your Knowledge 186
10 Welding Metallurgy of Carbon Steels 187
10.1 Introduction to Steels 187
10.2 Steel Microstructures and the Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram 189
10.3 Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagrams 193
10.4 Hardness and Hardenability 196
10.5 Hydrogen Cracking 198
10.6 Heat-Affected Zone Microstructures in Steel 200
10.7 Advanced High-Strength Steels 202
10.8 Test Your Knowledge 204
11 Welding Metallurgy of Stainless Steels 207
11.1 Introduction to Stainless Steels 207
11.2 Constitution Diagrams 208
11.3 Martensitic Stainless Steels 210
11.4 Ferritic Stainless Steels 211
11.5 Austenitic Stainless Steels 214
11.6 Duplex Stainless Steels 218
11.7 Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels 220
11.8 Test Your Knowledge 220
12 Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous Alloys 223
12.1 Aluminum Alloys 223
12.2 Nickel-Based Alloys 227
12.3 Titanium Alloys 231
12.4 Copper Alloys 234
12.5 Magnesium Alloys 235
12.6 Test Your Knowledge 237
13 Weld Quality 239
13.1 Weld Discontinuities and Defects 239
13.2 Mechanical Testing of Weldments 240
13.2.1 Tensile Testing 240
13.2.2 Ductility Testing 241
13.2.3 Toughness Testing 243
13.2.4 Fatigue Testing 244
13.3 Nondestructive Testing 248
13.3.1 Visual Examination 249
13.3.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing 249
13.3.3 Magnetic Particle Testing 250
13.3.4 Radiographic Testing 252
13.3.5 Ultrasonic Testing 254
13.4 Introduction to Fractography 255
13.5 Test Your Knowledge 258
14 Codes, Standards, and Welding Qualification 259
14.1 Introduction to Standards 259
14.2 AWS D1.1—“Structural Welding Code—Steel” 265
14.2.1 Welding and Welder Qualification 265
14.2.2 Fabrication and Inspection 272
14.3 Test Your Knowledge 272
15 Safe Practices in Welding 275
15.1 Electrical Shock 275
15.2 Radiation 275
15.3 Burns 275
15.4 Smoke and Fumes 276
15.5 Welding in Confined Space 276
15.6 Fire and Explosion Danger 276
15.7 Compressed Gasses 276
15.8 Hazardous Materials 277
15.9 Test Your Knowledge 277
Index 279
