List of Figures and Tables
Preface
Abbreviations and Symbols
Part I Preliminaries
1 Semantics in Linguistics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Semantics and Semiotics
1.3 Three Challenges in Doing Semantics
1.4 Meeting the Challenges
1.5 Semantics in a Model of Grammar
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Word meaning and sentence meaning
1.6 Some Important Assumptions
1.6.1 Reference and sense
1.6.2 Utterances, sentences, and propositions
1.6.3 Literal and non-literal meaning
1.6.4 Semantics and pragmatics
1.7 Summary
2 Meaning, Thought, and Reality
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Reference
2.2.1 Types of reference
2.2.2 Names
2.2.3 Nouns and noun phrases
2.3 Reference as a Theory of Meaning
2.4 Mental Representations
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Concepts
2.4.3 Necessary and sufficient conditions
2.4.4 Prototypes
2.4.5 Relations between concepts
2.4.6 Acquiring concepts
2.5 Words, Concepts, and Thinking
2.5.1 Linguistic relativity
2.5.2 The language of thought hypothesis
2.5.3 Thought and reality
2.6 Summary
Part II Semantic Description
3 Word Meaning
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Words and Grammatical Categories
3.3 Words and Lexical Items
3.4 Problems with Pinning Down Word Meaning
3.5 Lexical Relations
3.5.1 Homonymy
3.5.2 Polysemy
3.5.3 Synonymy
3.5.4 Opposites (antonymy)
3.5.5 Hyponymy
3.5.6 Meronymy
3.5.7 Member–collection
3.5.8 Portion–mass
3.6 Derivational Relations
3.6.1 Causative verbs
3.6.2 Agentive nouns
3.7 Lexical Typology
3.7.1 Polysemy
3.7.2 Color terms
3.7.3 Core vocabulary
3.7.4 Universal lexemes
3.8 Lexical Change
3.8.1 Introduction
3.8.2 Lexical shifts in meaning
3.8.3 System shifts in meaning
3.9 Summary
4 Sentence Relations and Truth
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Logic and Truth
4.3 Necessary Truth, A Priori Truth, and Analyticity
4.4 Entailment
4.5 Presupposition
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Two approaches to presupposition
4.5.3 Presupposition failure
4.5.4 Presupposition triggers
4.5.5 Presuppositions and context
4.5.6 Pragmatic theories of presupposition
4.6 Summary
5 Sentence Semantics 1: Situations
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Situation Types
5.2.1 States
5.2.2 Dynamic situation types
5.2.3 A system of situation types
5.2.4 Tests for situation types
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5.4 Aspect
5.4.1 Aspect and tense
5.4.2 Comparing aspect across languages
5.4.3 Aspect and situation type
5.5 Modality and Mood
5.5.1 Modality
5.5.2 Mood
5.6 Evidentiality
5.7 Negation
5.7.1 Introduction
5.7.2 Clausal negation
5.7.3 Constituent negation
5.7.4 Metalinguistic negation
5.7.5 Polarity
5.8 Summary
6 Sentence Semantics 2: Participants
6.1 Introduction: Classifying Participants
6.2 Thematic Roles
6.3 Grammatical Relations and Thematic Roles
6.4 Verbs and Thematic Role Grids
6.5 Problems with Thematic Roles
6.6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic Roles
6.7 Causation
6.8 Voice
6.8.1 Passive voice
6.8.2 Comparing passive constructions across languages
6.8.3 Middle voice
6.9 Classifiers and Noun Classes
6.9.1 Classifiers
6.9.2 Noun classes
6.10 Summary
7 Meaning and Context
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Deixis
7.2.1 Spatial deixis
7.2.2 Grammaticalization of context
7.2.3 Extensions of spatial deixis
7.2.4 Person deixis
7.2.5 Social deixis
7.3 Reference and Context
7.4 Knowledge as Context
7.4.1 Discourse as context
7.4.2 Background knowledge as context
7.4.3 Mutual knowledge
7.4.4 Giving background knowledge to computers
7.5 Information Structure
7.5.1 The information status of nominals
7.5.2 Focus and topic
7.5.3 Information structure and comprehension
7.6 Inference
7.7 Speech Act Semantics
7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.2 Austin's Speech Act Theory
7.7.3 Evaluating performative utterances
7.7.4 Explicit and implicit performatives
7.7.5 Statements as performatives
7.7.6 Three facets of a speech act
7.7.7 Indirect speech acts
7.7.8 Understanding indirect speech acts
7.7.9 Speech acts: a summary
7.8 Summary
Part III Theoretical Approaches
8 Meaning Components
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Lexical Relations in CA
8.2.1 Binary features
8.2.2 Redundancy rules
8.3 Katz's Semantic Theory
8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 The Katzian dictionary
8.3.3 Projection rules
8.4 Grammatical Rules and Semantic Components
8.4.1 The methodology
8.4.2 Thematic roles and linking rules
8.5 Talmy's Typology of Motion Events
8.6 Jackendoff's Conceptual Structure
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 The semantic components
8.6.3 Localist semantic fields
8.6.4 Complex events and states
8.6.5 THINGS: Semantic classes of nominals
8.6.6 Cross-category generalizations
8.6.7 Processes of semantic combination
8.7 Pustejovsky's Generative Lexicon
8.7.1 Event structure
8.7.2 Polysemy and Qualia Structure
8.8 Problems with Components of Meaning
8.9 Summary
9 Formal Semantics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Model-Theoretical Semantics
9.3 Translating English into a Logical Metalanguage
9.3.1 Introduction
9.3.2 Simple statements in predicate logic
9.3.3 Quantifiers in predicate logic
9.3.4 Some advantages of predicate logic translation
9.4 The Semantics of the Logical Metalanguage
9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 The semantic interpretation of predicate logic symbols
9.4.3 The domain
9.4.4 The denotation assignment function
9.5 Checking the Truth-Value of Sentences
9.5.1 Evaluating a simple statement
9.5.2 Evaluating a compound sentence with ∧ “and”
9.5.3 Evaluating sentences with the quantifiers ∀ and ∃
9.6 Word Meaning: Meaning Postulates
9.7 Natural Language Quantifiers and Higher-Order Logic
9.7.1 Restricted quantifiers
9.7.2 Generalized quantifiers
9.7.3 The strong/weak distinction and existential there sentences
9.7.4 Monotonicity and negative polarity items
9.7.5 Section summary
9.8 Intensionality
9.8.1 Introduction
9.8.2 Modality
9.8.3 Tense and aspect
9.9 Dynamic Approaches to Discourse
9.9.1 Anaphora in and across sentences
9.9.2 Donkey sentences
9.9.3 DRT and discourse anaphora
9.10 Summary
10 Cognitive Semantics
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Categorization
10.2.1 The rejection of classical categories
10.2.2 Embodiment and image schemas
10.2.3 Linguistic and encyclopedic knowledge
10.3 Polysemy
10.3.1 Prepositions
10.3.2 Modal verbs
10.4 Metaphor
10.4.1 Introduction
10.4.2 Conceptual Metaphor Theory
10.4.3 Features of metaphor
10.4.4 The influence of metaphor
10.5 Metonymy
10.6 Mental Spaces
10.6.1 Connections between spaces
10.6.2 Referential opacity
10.6.3 Presupposition
10.6.4 Conceptual integration theory
10.6.5 Section summary
10.7 Langacker's Cognitive Grammar
10.7.1 Nouns, verbs, and clauses
10.7.2 Construal
10.8 Construction Grammar
10.9 Summary
11 Inferential Pragmatics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Propositions
11.3 Beyond propositions: Grice's conversational implicature
11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Grice's maxims of conversational cooperation
11.4 Generalizing the Gricean Maxims
11.4.1 Horn's Q and R principles
11.4.2 Levinson's Q, I and M principles
11.5 Contextualism
11.5.1 Sentence and proposition mismatches
11.5.2 Gradable adjectives
11.5.3 Unexpressed temporal reference
11.5.4 Quantifier domain restriction
11.5.5 Cardinal numbers
11.5.6 Section summary
11.6 Relevance Theory
11.6.1 Introduction
11.6.2 Explicatures
11.6.3 Higher level explicatures
11.6.4 Implicatures
11.6.5 Implicature and explicature
11.6.6 Implicated premises and implicated conclusions
11.7 Lexical Pragmatics
11.7.1 Introduction
11.7.2 Polysemy and context
11.7.3 Microsenses and contextual modulation
11.7.4 Neo-Gricean lexical pragmatics
11.7.5 Lexical pragmatics in Relevance Theory
11.7.6 Section summary
11.8 Summary
Solutions to Exercises
Glossary
Index
