Foreword by Michael Pecht ix
Series Editor’s Preface xi
Preface xiii
About the Author xvii
Acknowledgements xix
1 The Origins and Evolution of Quality and Reliability 1
1.1 Sixty Years of Evolving Electronic Equipment Technology 1
1.2 Manufacturing Processes – From Manual Skills to Automation 3
1.3 Soldering Systems 4
1.4 Component Placement Machines 5
1.5 Automatic Test Equipment 5
1.6 Lean Manufacturing 5
1.7 Outsourcing 9
1.8 Electronic System Reliability – Folklore versus Reality 9
1.9 The ‘Bathtub’ Curve 11
1.10 The Truth about Arrhenius 13
1.11 The Demise of MIL-HDBK- 217 15
1.12 The Benefits of Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products 18
1.13 The MoD SMART Procurement Initiative 20
1.14 Why do Items Fail? 21
1.15 The Importance of Understanding Physics of Failure (PoF) 23
Summary and Questions 23
References 25
2 Product Lifecycle Management 27
2.1 Overview 27
2.2 Project Management 29
2.3 Project Initiation 31
2.4 Project Planning 33
2.5 Project Execution 38
2.6 Project Closure 41
2.7 A Process Capability Maturity Model 42
2.8 When and How to Define The Distribution Strategy 47
2.9 Transfer of Design to Manufacturing – The High-Risk Phase 48
2.10 Outsourcing – Understanding and Minimising the Risks 49
2.11 How Product Reliability is Increasingly Threatened in the Twenty-First Century 50
Summary and Questions 51
References 52
3 The Physics of Failure 53
3.1 Overview 53
3.2 Background 54
3.3 Potential Failure Mechanisms in Materials and Components 56
3.4 Techniques for Failure Analysis of Components and Assemblies 71
3.5 Transition from Tin-Lead to Lead-Free Soldering 75
3.6 High-Temperature Electronics and Extreme-Temperature Electronics 77
3.7 Some Illustrations of Failure Mechanisms 79
Summary and Questions 86
References 87
4 Heat Transfer – Theory and Practice 89
4.1 Overview 89
4.2 Conduction 90
4.3 Convection 96
4.4 Radiation 100
4.5 Thermal Management 106
4.6 Principles of Temperature Measurement 106
4.7 Temperature Cycling and Thermal Shock 110
Summary and Questions 111
References 112
5 Shock and Vibration – Theory and Practice 113
5.1 Overview 113
5.2 Sources of Shock Pulses in the Real Environment 114
5.3 Response of Electronic Equipment to Shock Pulses 115
5.4 Shock Testing 116
5.5 Product Shock Fragility 120
5.6 Shock and Vibration Isolation Techniques 126
5.7 Sources of Vibration in the Real Environment 133
5.8 Response of Electronic Equipment to Vibration 134
5.9 Vibration Testing 134
5.10 Vibration-Test Fixtures 139
Summary and Questions 145
References 147
6 Achieving Environmental-Test Realism 149
6.1 Overview 149
6.2 Environmental-Testing Objectives 150
6.3 Environmental-Test Specifications and Standards 152
6.4 Quality Standards 157
6.5 The Role of the Test Technician 158
6.6 Mechanical Testing 159
6.7 Climatic Testing 164
6.8 Chemical and Biological Testing 168
6.9 Combined Environment Testing 169
6.10 Electromagnetic Compatibility 175
6.11 Avoiding Misinterpretation of Test Standards and Specifications 179
Summary and Questions 181
References 183
7 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Design 185
7.1 Overview 185
7.2 Robust Design and Quality Loss Function 186
7.3 Six Sigma Quality 192
7.4 Concept, Parameter and Tolerance Design 195
7.5 Understanding Product Whole Lifecycle Environment 199
7.6 Defining User Requirement for Failure-Free Operation 203
7.7 Component Anatomy, Materials and Mechanical Architecture 205
7.8 Design for Testability 206
7.9 Design for Manufacturability 211
7.10 Define Product Distribution Strategy 213
Summary and Questions 215
References 216
8 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Development 217
8.1 Overview 217
8.2 Understanding and Achieving Test Realism 218
8.3 Qualification Testing 219
8.4 Stress Margin Analysis and Functional Performance Stability 219
8.5 Premature Failure Stimulation 229
8.6 Accelerated Ageing vs. Accelerated Life Testing 229
8.7 Design and Proving of Distribution Packaging 232
Summary and Questions 247
References 248
9 Essential Reliability Technology Disciplines in Manufacturing 251
9.1 Overview 251
9.2 Manufacturing Planning 252
9.3 Manufacturing Process Capability 253
9.4 Manufacturing Process Management and Control 257
9.5 Non-invasive Inspection Techniques 267
9.6 Manufacturing Handling Procedures 269
9.7 Lead-Free Soldering – A True Perspective 279
9.8 Conformal Coating 281
9.9 Production Reliability Acceptance Testing 287
Summary and Questions 288
References 289
10 Environmental-Stress Screening 291
10.1 Overview 291
10.2 The Origins of ESS 291
10.3 Thermal-Stress Screening 294
10.4 Developing a Thermal-Stress Screen 313
10.5 Vibration-Stress Screening 315
10.6 Developing a Vibration-Stress Screen 317
10.7 Combined Environment-Stress Screening 326
10.8 Other Stress Screening Methodologies 327
10.9 Estimating Product Life Consumed by Stress Screening 328
10.10 An Environmental-Stress Screening Case Study 329
Summary and Questions 334
References 335
11 Some Worked Examples 337
11.1 Overview 337
11.2 Thermal Expansion Stresses Generated within a PTH Due to Temperature Cycling 340
11.3 Shear Tear-Out Stresses in Through-Hole Solder Joints 342
11.4 Axial Forces on a Through-Hole Component Lead Wire 346
11.5 SMC QFP – Solder-Joint Shear Stresses 348
11.6 Frequency and Peak Half-Amplitude Displacement Calculations 357
11.7 Random Vibration – Converting G2/Hz to GRMS 358
11.8 Accelerated Ageing – Temperature Cycling and Vibration 360
11.9 Stress Screening – Production Vibration Fixture Design 363
References 365
Appendix 1: Physical Properties of Materials 367
Appendix 2: Unit Conversion Tables 377
Index 383
