Preface xi
1 The Reality of Groups 1
Definition 1
The Individual-Group Relationship 2
The Interpersonal-Group Continuum 4
Three Unifying Themes: Social Identity, Social Context and Social Action 6
Summary 11
Further Reading 12
References 12
2 Group Formation and Other Elementary Group Processes 15
Interdependence 15
All in the Same Boat: Interdependence of Fate 16
Working with Others: Task Interdependence 17
Social Categorisation 19
From Individuals to a Group: Entitativity 19
Us and Them: Intergroup Differentiation and Intragroup Assimilation 22
When 'We' Deserve More than 'Them': Minimal Conditions for Intergroup Discrimination 23
Why Do They (and We) Look all the Same? Perceived Intragroup Assimilation (Homogeneity) 26
On being Similar or Different but still a Group: Individuality, Interaction, and Entitativity 28
Not Only in Our Heads: The Pragmatic and Rhetorical Use of Categories 30
Joining and Interacting in Groups: Some Elementary Group Processes 31
Joining Groups 31
From Getting Together to Sticking Together: Group Cohesion 36
What Goes on in Groups? Achieving the Task and Maintaining Relationships 41
Summary 42
Further Reading 43
References 43
3 Reaching Agreement in Groups 51
The Acquisition and Development of Group Norms 51
The Acquisition of Group Norms 52
Why People need Norms: Individual Functions of Group Norms 53
Why Groups need Norms: Social Functions of Norms 55
Stability and Change 56
The Power of the Majority 58
The Pervasiveness of Conformity 59
Why do People Conform? 61
Standing Out from the Crowd: On being a Deviate 65
Going to Extremes: Reaching Decisions in Groups 70
Explanations of Group Polarisation 71
Concluding Remarks on Group Polarisation 76
Summary 77
Further Reading 78
References 78
4 Innovation and Change in Groups 85
Minority Influence 85
Majority-Minority Influence is a Dynamic Process 88
Social Categorisation and Minority Influence: Which Group does the Minority Belong to? 91
Two Influence Processes or One? 91
Concluding Comments 99
Leadership 100
Coercion and Reward 100
Charisma 102
Leadership Styles 105
Interaction of Leader Style and Situation 106
Leaders as Committed Group Members 109
Leader Prototypicality 110
Serving Group Interests 112
'Entrepreneurs' and 'Embedders' of Identity 113
Authority 115
Summary 116
Further Reading 117
References 117
5 The Effectiveness of Groups 124
Group Productivity 125
Does the Presence of Others Help or Hinder Performance? 125
Are Two Heads (or Bodies) better than One? 126
Potential and Actual Productivity: Theories of Group Deficit 128
Two Heads (or Bodies) really can be better than One: The Benefits of Working in Groups 133
Group Decision-Making 140
Modeling Group Decisions: Social Decision Schemes Theory 140
The Quality of Decision-Making Process 142
Groups can be Good for You 146
Resilience 146
Health and Well-being 150
Summary 152
Further Reading 153
Group Productivity 153
Group Decision-Making 153
Health and Well-being Benefits of Groups 153
References 154
6 The Morality of Groups 161
Are Groups really more Aggressive than Individuals? Collective Aggression and Violence 161
Deindividuation 162
Experimental Evidence concerning Groups and Antisocial Behaviour 163
The Stanford Prison Experiment 166
How Group Norms shape the Nature of Crowd Violence 169
Identity Transformation and Emergence of Conflict in Crowds 171
Online Aggression 172
Groups and Helping Behaviour 174
The Bystander Effect and its Limits 174
Solidarity within the Group 176
Helping the Outgroup 182
Summary 184
Further Reading 185
References 186
7 Conflict and Inequality 191
Intergroup Relations and Real Group Interests 192
The Development of an Intergroup Perspective 192
The Summer Camp Studies 194
Lessons from the Summer Camps 196
Extending the Realistic Conflict Approach 197
'Real World' Evidence 197
Stereotypes and Intergroup Relations 198
Fear, Anger, Disgust, and Other Emotions 201
The Outgroup as Sub-human 203
Hierarchy and Oppression 206
Divide and Rule 206
Consensual Discrimination 207
Ambivalent Sexism 208
Outgroup Favoritism and System Justification 210
Social Dominance Theory 212
Social Dominance Orientation 213
Evaluating Social Dominance Theory 216
Integrating SDO and RWA 218
Summary 219
Further Reading 220
References 220
8 Rebellion and Social Change 227
Angry Rejection of the Status Quo 228
Anger 230
Social Identity Theory 235
Individual Mobility 236
Social Creativity 239
Changing the Dimension of Comparison 240
Downward Social Comparison 242
Redefining the Meaning of the Devalued Attribute 242
Social Competition 243
Winning the Solidarity of the Advantaged 243
Resentment and Backlash 244
Experiencing Illegitimate Privilege 246
Intergroup Contact and Collective Action 248
Consequences of Collective Action 250
Summary 252
Further Reading 253
References 253
9 Bringing Groups Together 261
Getting to Know You: Intergroup Contact and Prejudice Reduction 262
Elaborating the Contact Hypothesis 263
How to make Contact Work Better: Decategorisation, Categorisation, or Recategorisation? 263
Understanding how Contact Works: The Role of Emotion 268
Indirect Forms of Contact: Extended, Vicarious and Imagined 270
Intergroup Contact and its Critics 275
"From Both Sides Now": The Importance of both Victim and Perpetrator Emotions 279
Group-Based Emotions: Guilt, Shame, Victimhood, and Forgiveness 283
Living Together or Living Apart: The Challenges of Diversity and Multi-culturalism 287
Acculturation and Well-Being in Minority Groups 288
Acculturation and Intergroup Relations 291
Summary 294
Further Reading 295
References 295
Name Index 309
Subject Index 325
