Preface xi
Part One Understanding the World
1 You, the Discoverer 3
1.1 Venturing into the Unknown 4
1.2 Embarking on a Ph.D 5
1.3 The Art of Discovery 5
1.4 About this Book 7
1.5 How to Use this Book 8
Further Reading 10
References 10
2 What is Science? 11
2.1 Characteristics of the Scientific Approach 11
2.2 The Inductive Method 14
2.3 The Hypothetico-Deductive Method 16
2.4 Consequences of Falsification 19
2.5 The Role of Confirmation 21
2.6 Perception is Personal 23
2.7 The Scientific Community 29
2.8 Summary 30
Further Reading 31
References 31
3 Science's Childhood 33
3.1 Infancy 33
3.2 Ionian Dawn 34
3.3 Divine Mathematics 38
3.4 Adolescence - Revolution! 41
3.5 The Children of the Revolution 47
3.6 Summary 50
Further Reading 50
References 51
4 Science Inclined to Experiment 53
4.1 Galileo's Important Experiment 54
4.2 Experiment or Hoax? 56
4.3 Reconstructing the Experiment 58
4.4 Getting the Swing of Things 60
4.5 The Message from the Plane 62
4.6 Summary 63
References 64
5 Scientists, Engineers and Other Poets 65
5.1 Research and Development 65
5.2 Characteristics of Research 68
5.3 Building Theories 70
5.4 The Relationship between Theory and Reality 75
5.5 Creativity 77
5.6 Summary 79
Further Reading 80
References 80
Part Two Interfering with the World
6 Experiment! 83
6.1 What is an Experiment? 83
6.2 Questions, Answers and Experiments 85
6.3 A Gallery of Experiments 88
6.4 Reflections on the Exhibition 108
6.5 Summary 110
Further Reading 110
References 112
7 Basic Statistics 113
7.1 The Role of Statistics in Data Analysis 113
7.2 Populations and Samples 115
7.3 Descriptive Statistics 116
7.4 Probability Distribution 122
7.5 The Central Limit Effect 126
7.6 Normal Probability Plots 129
7.7 Confidence Intervals 132
7.8 The t-Distribution 134
7.9 Summary 136
Further Reading 137
References 138
8 Statistics for Experiments 139
8.1 A Teatime Experiment 139
8.2 The Importance of Randomization 141
8.3 One-Sided and Two-Sided Tests 142
8.4 The t-Test for One Sample 143
8.5 The Power of a Test 148
8.6 Comparing Two Samples 150
8.7 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 155
8.8 A Measurement System Analysis 159
8.9 Other Useful Hypothesis Tests 163
8.10 Interpreting p-Values 164
8.11 Correlation 165
8.12 Regression Modeling 167
8.13 Summary 171
Further Reading 172
References 173
9 Experimental Design 175
9.1 Statistics and the Scientific Method 175
9.2 Designs with One Categorical Factor 176
9.3 Several Categorical Factors: the Full Factorial Design 178
9.4 Are Interactions Important? 186
9.5 Factor Screening: Fractional Factorial Designs 187
9.6 Determining the Confounding Pattern 188
9.7 Design Resolution 190
9.8 Working with Screening Designs 191
9.9 Continuous Factors: Regression and Response Surface Methods 195
9.10 Summary 207
Further Reading 208
References 209
10 Phase I: Planning 211
10.1 The Three Phases of Research 211
10.2 Experiment 1: Visual Orientation in a Beetle 213
10.3 Experiment 2: Lift-Off Length in a Diesel Engine 216
10.4 Finding Out What is Not Known 218
10.5 Determining the Scope 221
10.6 Tools for Generating Hypotheses 222
10.7 Thought Experiments 227
10.8 Planning Checklist 229
10.9 Summary 231
References 233
11 Phase II: Data Collection 235
11.1 Generating Understanding from Data 235
11.2 Measurement Uncertainty 236
11.3 Developing a Measurement System 238
11.4 Measurement System Analysis 244
11.5 The Data Collection Plan 248
11.6 Summary 251
Further Reading 252
References 252
12 Phase III: Analysis and Synthesis 253
12.1 Turning Data into Information 253
12.2 Graphical Analysis 256
12.3 Mathematical Analysis 259
12.4 Writing a Scientific Paper 260
12.5 Writing a Ph.D. Thesis 264
12.6 Farewell 266
12.7 Summary 266
Further Reading 266
References 267
Appendix 269
Standard Normal Probabilities 269
Probability Points for the t-Distribution 270
Index 271
