Preface xv
List of Contributors xvii
List of Figures xxi
List of Tables xxv
List of Examples xxvii
List of Definitions xxix
List of Abbreviations xxxi
1 Introduction 1
Andre Årnes
1.1 Forensic Science 1
1.1.1 History of Forensic Science 2
1.1.2 Locard’s Exchange Principle 2
1.1.3 Crime Reconstruction 3
1.1.4 Investigations 3
1.1.5 Evidence Dynamics 4
1.2 Digital Forensics 4
1.2.1 Crimes and Incidents 5
1.2.2 Digital Devices, Media, and Objects 5
1.2.3 Forensic Soundness and Fundamental Principles 5
1.2.4 Crime Reconstruction in Digital Forensics 6
1.3 Digital Evidence 7
1.3.1 Layers of Abstraction 7
1.3.2 Metadata 7
1.3.3 Error, Uncertainty, and Loss 7
1.3.4 Online Bank Fraud – A Real-World Example 8
1.3.4.1 Modus Operandi 8
1.3.4.2 The SpyEye Case 8
1.4 Further Reading 9
1.5 Chapter Overview 10
1.6 Comments on Citation and Notation 10
2 The Digital Forensics Process 13
Anders O. Flaglien
2.1 Introduction 13
2.1.1 Why Do We Need a Process? 14
2.1.2 Principles of a Forensics Process 15
2.1.3 Finding the Digital Evidence 15
2.1.4 Introducing the Digital Forensics Process 16
2.2 The Identification Phase 17
2.2.1 Preparations and Deployment of Tools and Resources 18
2.2.2 The First Responder 19
2.2.3 At the Scene of the Incident 21
2.2.3.1 Preservation Tasks 22
2.2.4 Dealing with Live and Dead Systems 22
2.2.5 Chain of Custody 23
2.3 The Collection Phase 24
2.3.1 Sources of Digital Evidence 26
2.3.2 Systems Physically Tied to a Location 28
2.3.3 Multiple Evidence Sources 28
2.3.4 Reconstruction 28
2.3.5 Evidence Integrity and Cryptographic Hashes 29
2.3.6 Order of Volatility 30
2.3.7 Dual-Tool Verification 32
2.3.8 Remote Acquisition 32
2.3.9 External Competency and Forensics Cooperation 33
2.4 The Examination Phase 33
2.4.1 Initial Data Source Examination and Preprocessing 34
2.4.2 Forensic File Formats and Structures 35
2.4.3 Data Recovery 35
2.4.4 Data Reduction and Filtering 36
2.4.5 Timestamps 37
2.4.6 Compression, Encryption and Obfuscation 37
2.4.7 Data and File Carving 38
2.4.8 Automation 39
2.5 The Analysis Phase 39
2.5.1 Layers of Abstraction 40
2.5.2 Evidence Types 40
2.5.3 String and Keyword Searches 41
2.5.4 Anti-Forensics 42
2.5.4.1 Computer Media Wiping 42
2.5.4.2 Analysis of Encrypted and Obfuscated Data 42
2.5.5 Automated Analysis 43
2.5.6 Timelining of Events 43
2.5.7 Graphs and Visual Representations 43
2.5.8 Link Analysis 44
2.6 The Presentation Phase 45
2.6.1 The Final Reports 46
2.6.2 Presentation of Evidence and Work Conducted 46
2.6.3 The Chain of Custody Circle Closes 47
2.7 Summary 47
2.8 Exercises 48
3 Cybercrime Law 51
Inger Marie Sunde
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 The International Legal Framework of Cybercrime Law 54
3.2.1 The Individuals Involved in Criminal Activity and in CrimePreventing Initiatives 54
3.2.2 The National Legal System versus the International Legal Framework 55
3.2.3 Fundamental Rights Relating to Cybercrime Law – The ECHR 56
3.2.3.1 The ECtHR as a Driving Force for Development of Human Rights 57
3.2.3.2 The Right to Bring a Case before the ECtHR 57
3.2.3.3 A Special Note on Transborder Search and Surveillance 58
3.2.3.4 The Connection between Fundamental Rights and the Rule of Law 60
3.2.3.5 The Principle of Legality in the Context of Crime 60
3.2.3.6 The Principle of Legality in the Context of a Criminal Investigation 61
3.2.3.7 The Positive Obligation of the Nation State 63
3.2.3.8 The Right to Fair Trial 64
3.2.3.9 A Special Note on Evidence Rules in Different Legal Systems 68
3.2.3.10 Possible Outcomes of a Violation of Fundamental Rights 69
3.2.4 Special Legal Framework: The Cybercrime Convention 69
3.2.5 Interpretation of Cybercrime Law 72
3.2.5.1 Interpretation of Substantive Criminal Law 72
3.2.5.2 Application of Old Criminal Provisions to New Modes of Conduct 74
3.2.5.3 Interpretation of Procedural Provisions Authorizing Coercive Measures 75
3.3 Digital Crime – Substantive Criminal Law 76
3.3.1 General Conditions for Criminal Liability 77
3.3.2 Real-Life Modus Operandi 80
3.3.3 Offenses against the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability of Computer Data and Systems 81
3.3.3.1 Illegal Access and Illegal Interception 82
3.3.3.2 Data and System Interference 85
3.3.3.3 Misuse of Devices 88
3.3.4 Computer-Related Offenses 89
3.3.5 Content-Related Offenses 91
3.3.6 Offenses Related to Infringements of Copyright and Related Rights 93
3.3.7 Racist and Xenophobic Speech 94
3.4 Investigation Methods for Collecting Digital Evidence 95
3.4.1 The Digital Forensic Process in the Context of Criminal Procedure 95
3.4.2 Computer Data That Are Publicly Available 97
3.4.2.1 Transborder Access to Stored Computer Data Where Publicly Available 98
3.4.2.2 Online Undercover Operations 98
3.4.3 Scope and Safeguards of the Investigation Methods 99
3.4.3.1 Suspicion-Based Investigation Methods 99
3.4.3.2 The Scope of the Investigation Methods (Article 14) 99
3.4.3.3 Conditions and Safeguards (Article 15) 100
3.4.3.4 Considerations Relating to Third Parties 102
3.4.4 Search and Seizure (Article 19) 103
3.4.4.1 Main Rules 103
3.4.4.2 Special Issues 104
3.4.5 Production Order 106
3.4.6 Expedited Preservation and Partial Disclosure of Traffic Data 107
3.4.6.1 Real-Time Investigation Methods (Articles 20 and 21) 107
3.5 International Cooperation in Order to Collect Digital Evidence 109
3.5.1 Narrowing the Focus 109
3.5.2 A Special Note on Transborder Access to Digital Evidence 110
3.5.3 Mutual Legal Assistance 111
3.5.3.1 Basic Principles and Formal Steps of the Procedure 111
3.5.3.2 International Conventions Concerning Mutual Legal Assistance 112
3.5.4 International Police Cooperation and Joint Investigation Teams 114
3.6 Summary 115
3.7 Exercises 115
4 Digital Forensic Readiness 117
Ausra Dilijonaite
4.1 Introduction 117
4.2 Definition 117
4.3 Law Enforcement versus Enterprise Digital Forensic Readiness 118
4.4 Why? A Rationale for Digital Forensic Readiness 119
4.4.1 Cost 119
4.4.2 Usefulness of Digital Evidence 120
4.4.2.1 Existence of Digital Evidence 121
4.4.2.2 Evidentiary Weight of Digital Evidence 121
4.5 Frameworks, Standards, and Methodologies 123
4.5.1 Standards 124
4.5.1.1 ISO/IEC 27037 124
4.5.1.2 ISO/IEC 17025 124
4.5.1.3 NIST SP 800-86 124
4.5.2 Guidelines 124
4.5.2.1 IOCE Guidelines 124
4.5.2.2 Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) 125
4.5.2.3 ENFSI Guidelines 125
4.5.3 Research 125
4.5.3.1 Rowlingson’s Ten-Step Process 125
4.5.3.2 Grobler et al.’s Forensic Readiness Framework 125
4.5.3.3 Endicott-Popovsky et al.’s Forensic Readiness Framework 126
4.6 Becoming “Digital Forensic” Ready 126
4.7 Enterprise Digital Forensic Readiness 127
4.7.1 Legal Aspects 127
4.7.2 Policy, Processes, and Procedures 128
4.7.2.1 Risk-Based Approach 128
4.7.2.2 Incident Response versus Digital Forensics 130
4.7.2.3 Policy 130
4.7.2.4 Processes and Procedures 131
4.7.3 People 132
4.7.3.1 Roles and Responsibilities 132
4.7.3.2 Skills, Competencies, and Training 134
4.7.3.3 Awareness Training 134
4.7.4 Technology: Digital Forensic Laboratory 135
4.7.4.1 Accreditation and Certification 135
4.7.4.2 Organizational Framework 136
4.7.4.3 Security Policy or Framework 136
4.7.4.4 Control of Records 136
4.7.4.5 Processes, Procedures, and Lab Routines 137
4.7.4.6 Methodology and Methods 138
4.7.4.7 Personnel 138
4.7.4.8 Code of Conduct 138
4.7.4.9 Tools 138
4.7.5 Technology: Tools and Infrastructure 139
4.7.5.1 Sources of the Digital Evidence 139
4.7.5.2 Validation and Verification of Digital Forensic Tools 140
4.7.5.3 Preparation of Infrastructure 141
4.7.6 Outsourcing Digital Forensic Capabilities 142
4.7.6.1 Continuous Improvement 143
4.8 Considerations for Law Enforcement 144
4.9 Summary 145
4.10 Exercises 145
5 Computer Forensics 147
Jeff Hamm
5.1 Introduction 147
5.2 Evidence Collection 148
5.2.1 Data Acquisition 149
5.2.1.1 Live Data (Including Memory) 150
5.2.1.2 Forensic Image 152
5.2.2 Forensic Copy 152
5.3 Examination 152
5.3.1 Disk Structures 153
5.3.1.1 Physical Disk Structures 153
5.3.1.2 Logical Disk Structures 156
5.3.2 File Systems 159
5.3.2.1 NTFS (New Technology File System) 163
5.3.2.2 INDX (Index) 173
5.3.2.3 Orphan Files 174
5.3.2.4 EXT2/3/4 (Second, Third, and Fourth Extended Filesystems) 176
5.3.2.5 Operating System Artifacts 177
5.3.2.6 Linux Distributions 183
5.4 Analysis 185
5.4.1 Analysis Tools 185
5.4.2 Timeline Analysis 186
5.4.3 File Hashing 187
5.4.4 Filtering 187
5.4.5 Data Carving 188
5.4.5.1 Files 188
5.4.5.2 Records 188
5.4.5.3 Index Search 189
5.4.6 Memory Analysis 189
5.5 Summary 189
5.6 Exercises 190
6 Mobile and Embedded Forensics 191
Jens-Petter Sandvik
6.1 Introduction 192
6.1.1 Embedded Systems and Consumer Electronics 192
6.1.2 Mobile Phones 194
6.1.2.1 UICC (Formerly Known as a SIM Card) 195
6.1.3 Telecommunication Networks 196
6.1.3.1 GSM Network 196
6.1.3.2 UMTS Networks 198
6.1.3.3 Evolved Packet System (EPS)–Long-Term Evolution (LTE) Networks 198
6.1.3.4 Evidence in the Mobile Network 199
6.1.4 Mobile Devices and Embedded Systems as Evidence 200
6.1.5 Malware and Security Considerations 201
6.1.6 Ontologies for Mobile and Embedded Forensics 202
6.1.6.1 An Acquisition Method Ontology 202
6.1.6.2 Technical Qualities 207
6.1.6.3 Tools Used for Acquisition 207
6.1.6.4 Data Acquisition Methods 208
6.2 Collection Phase 208
6.2.1 Special Considerations for Embedded Systems and Mobile Devices 209
6.2.1.1 Functionality 210
6.2.1.2 Stored Data 210
6.2.1.3 Storage Media 210
6.2.1.4 Security Measures 210
6.2.1.5 Communication Ports and Protocols 210
6.2.2 Handling Electronics – ESD 210
6.2.3 First Contact 212
6.2.3.1 Hazards 212
6.2.3.2 Preservation of Other Traces 213
6.2.3.3 Damages and Unique Characteristics 213
6.2.3.4 State and Information 213
6.2.3.5 Clock Setting 213
6.2.3.6 Investigative Value of Information 213
6.2.4 Physical Acquisition 214
6.2.4.1 Two Approaches to Physical Acquisition 215
6.2.4.2 Chip-Off/In Vitro Acquisition 216
6.2.4.3 JTAG/In-System Acquisition 222
6.2.5 Logical Acquisition of Data 225
6.2.5.1 Manual Inspection 225
6.2.5.2 SIM Acquisition 225
6.2.5.3 SIM Replacement 228
6.2.5.4 Device Backup 228
6.2.5.5 USB Mass Storage 229
6.2.5.6 Media Transfer Protocol 230
6.2.5.7 OBEX 230
6.2.5.8 AT Commands 231
6.2.5.9 Vendor-Specific Protocols 233
6.2.5.10 Android Debug Bridge (ADB) 233
6.2.6 Somewhere between Physical and Logical 234
6.2.6.1 Root Access 235
6.2.6.2 Boot Access 235
6.2.6.3 Encryption Keys 237
6.2.6.4 Flasher Tools 237
6.2.6.5 Chip-Off Continued 238
6.2.7 Commercial Forensic Products 240
6.2.8 What about RAM? 241
6.2.9 Damaged Devices 241
6.2.9.1 External Force 242
6.2.9.2 Water, Liquids, and Blood 243
6.2.10 Wrapping It Up 243
6.2.10.1 Matrix of Information Availability 243
6.2.10.2 Cheat Sheet 245
6.2.10.3 On or Off? 245
6.3 Examination Phase 247
6.3.1 Top-Down: Flash Translation Layer (FTL) 247
6.3.2 Top-Down: Flash File Systems 249
6.3.3 Bottom-Up: Carving 250
6.3.4 Bottom-Up: Keyword Search 250
6.3.5 Technical Deep-Dive: FTL from Nokia 7610 Supernova 251
6.3.6 Technical Deep-Dive: Flash File System – YAFFS 252
6.3.7 Technical Deep-Dive: Structure – SMS PDU 255
6.3.8 Technical Deep-Dive: Structure – SQLite3 Database 261
6.3.9 Technical Deep-Dive: Timestamps 265
6.4 Reverse Engineering and Analysis of Applications 267
6.4.1 Methods 267
6.4.1.1 Black Box Testing 267
6.4.1.2 Static Code Analysis 268
6.4.1.3 Runtime Analysis 268
6.4.2 Targets 269
6.4.2.1 Program Functionality 269
6.4.2.2 Data Structures 269
6.4.2.3 Protocols 269
6.4.2.4 Encryption 269
6.5 Summary 270
6.6 Exercises 271
7 Internet Forensics 275
Petter Christian Bjelland
7.1 Introduction 275
7.2 Computer Networking 276
7.3 Layers of Network Abstraction 277
7.3.1 The Physical Layer 277
7.3.2 The Data Link, Network, and Transport Layers 277
7.3.2.1 IP Addresses 278
7.3.3 The Session, Presentation, and Application Layers 278
7.4 The Internet 279
7.4.1 Internet Backbone 279
7.4.1.1 Autonomous System (AS) 279
7.4.1.2 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) 280
7.4.1.3 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) 281
7.4.2 Common Applications 281
7.4.2.1 Domain Name System (DNS) 281
7.4.2.2 Email 283
7.4.2.3 World Wide Web (WWW) 284
7.4.2.4 Peer-to-Peer Networks 285
7.4.2.5 Other Media 285
7.4.3 Caveats 286
7.4.3.1 Network Address Translation (NAT) 286
7.4.3.2 Onion Routing 287
7.4.3.3 Web Shells 288
7.5 Tracing Information on the Internet 289
7.5.1 DNS and Reverse DNS 289
7.5.2 Whois and Reverse Whois 290
7.5.3 Ping and Port Scan 290
7.5.4 Traceroute 291
7.5.5 IP Geolocation 291
7.5.6 Tracing BitTorrent Peers 292
7.5.7 Bitcoin Unconfirmed Transaction Tracing 293
7.6 Collection Phase – Local Acquisition 294
7.6.1 Browser History 295
7.6.2 Browser Cache 295
7.6.3 Browser Cookies 296
7.6.4 Email 297
7.6.5 Messaging and Chats 297
7.6.6 Internet of Things 297
7.7 Collection Phase – Network Acquisition 298
7.7.1 tcpdump and pcap 298
7.7.1.1 Netflow 299
7.7.2 DHCP Logs 299
7.8 Collection Phase – Remote Acquisition 300
7.8.1 Server 300
7.8.1.1 Web Server Logs 300
7.8.1.2 Web Application Logs 300
7.8.1.3 Virtual Hosts 301
7.8.2 Cloud Services 301
7.8.3 Open Sources 302
7.8.3.1 Personal Information 302
7.8.3.2 User Accounts 303
7.8.3.3 Contact Lists 303
7.8.3.4 Publication of Content 303
7.8.3.5 Interaction with Content 303
7.8.3.6 Public Interaction 304
7.8.3.7 Association with Groups and Communities 304
7.9 Other Considerations 304
7.9.1 Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) 304
7.9.1.1 Accessing User Accounts 304
7.9.2 Integrity of Remote Artifacts 305
7.10 The Examination and Analysis Phases 306
7.10.1 Finding Interesting Nodes in Large Networks 306
7.10.2 Divide and Conquer Large Networks 307
7.10.2.1 Clustering 307
7.10.2.2 Community Detection 307
7.10.3 Making Sense of Millions of Events 308
7.10.3.1 Aggregated Timelines 308
7.10.3.2 Temporal Networks 309
7.10.3.3 Heat Maps 310
7.11 Summary 311
7.12 Exercises 312
8 Challenges in Digital Forensics 313
Katrin Franke and Andre Årnes
8.1 Computational Forensics 313
8.1.1 The Objectives of Computational Forensics 314
8.1.1.1 Large-Scale Investigations 314
8.1.1.2 Automation 314
8.1.1.3 Analysis 315
8.1.1.4 Forensic Soundness 315
8.1.2 Disciplines of Computational Forensics 316
8.2 Automation and Standardization 316
8.3 Research Agenda 317
8.4 Summary 317
9 Educational Guide 319
Stefan Axelsson
9.1 Teacher’s Guide 319
9.2 Student’s Guide 320
9.2.1 Journals 320
9.2.2 Conferences and Organizations 321
9.2.3 Professional and Training Organizations 322
9.2.4 Tools 323
9.2.5 Corpuses 323
9.3 Summary 324
References 325
Index 333
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