About the Author xv
Acknowledgement xvii
Introduction xix
1 Data Security Laws and Enforcement Actions 1
1.1 FTC Data Security 2
1.1.1 Overview of Section 5 of the FTC Act 2
1.1.2 Wyndham: Does the FTC Have Authority to Regulate Data Security under Section 5 of the FTC Act? 5
1.1.3 LabMD: What Constitutes "Unfair" or "Deceptive" Data Security? 9
1.1.4 FTC June 2015 Guidance on Data Security 11
1.1.5 FTC Protecting Personal Information Guide 14
1.1.6 Lessons from FTC Cybersecurity Complaints 15
1.1.6.1 Failure to Secure Highly Sensitive Information 16
1.1.6.1.1 Use Industry-Standard Encryption for Sensitive Data 16
1.1.6.1.2 Routine Audits and Penetration Testing Are Expected 17
1.1.6.1.3 Health-Related Data Requires Especially Strong Safeguards 18
1.1.6.1.4 Data Security Protection Extends to Paper Documents 19
1.1.6.1.5 Business-to-Business Providers Also Are Accountable to the FTC
For Security of Sensitive Data 20
1.1.6.1.6 Companies Are Responsible for the Data Security Practices of Their Contractors 22
1.1.6.1.7 Make Sure That Every Employee Receives Regular Data Security Training for Processing Sensitive Data 23
1.1.6.1.8 Privacy Matters, Even in Data Security 23
1.1.6.1.9 Limit the Sensitive Information Provided to Third Parties 24
1.1.6.2 Failure to Secure Payment Card Information 24
1.1.6.2.1 Adhere to Security Claims about Payment Card Data 24
1.1.6.2.2 Always Encrypt Payment Card Data 25
1.1.6.2.3 Payment Card Data Should Be Encrypted Both in Storage and at Rest 26
1.1.6.2.4 In-Store Purchases Pose Significant Cybersecurity Risks 26
1.1.6.2.5 Minimize Duration of Storage of Payment Card Data 28
1.1.6.2.6 Monitor Systems and Networks for Unauthorized Software 29
1.1.6.2.7 Apps Should Never Override Default App Store Security Settings 29
1.1.6.3 Failure to Adhere to Security Claims 30
1.1.6.3.1 Companies Must Address Commonly Known Security Vulnerabilities 30
1.1.6.3.2 Ensure That Security Controls Are Sufficient to Abide by Promises about Security and Privacy 31
1.1.6.3.3 Omissions about Key Security Flaws Also Can Be Misleading 33
1.1.6.3.4 Companies Must Abide by Promises for Security-Related Consent Choices 33
1.1.6.3.5 Companies That Promise Security Must Ensure Adequate Authentication Procedures 34
1.1.6.3.6 Adhere to Promises about Encryption 35
1.2 State Data Breach Notification Laws 36
1.2.1 When Consumer Notifications Are Required 37
1.2.1.1 Definition of Personal Information 37
1.2.1.2 Encrypted Data 38
1.2.1.3 Risk of Harm 39
1.2.1.4 Safe Harbors and Exceptions to Notice Requirement 39
1.2.2 Notice to Individuals 40
1.2.2.1 Timing of Notice 40
1.2.2.2 Form of Notice 40
1.2.2.3 Content of Notice 41
1.2.3 Notice to Regulators and Consumer Reporting Agencies 41
1.2.4 Penalties for Violating State Breach Notification Laws 42
1.3 State Data Security Laws 42
1.3.1 Oregon 43
1.3.2 Rhode Island 45
1.3.3 Nevada 45
1.3.4 Massachusetts 46
1.4 State Data Disposal Laws 49
2 Cybersecurity Litigation 51
2.1 Article III Standing 52
2.1.1 Applicable Supreme Court Rulings on Standing 53
2.1.2 Lower Court Rulings on Standing in Data Breach Cases 57
2.1.2.1 Injury-in-Fact 57
2.1.2.1.1 Broad View of Injury-in-Fact 57
2.1.2.1.2 Narrow View of Injury-in-Fact 60
2.1.2.2 Fairly Traceable 62
2.1.2.3 Redressability 63
2.2 Common Causes of Action Arising from Data Breaches 64
2.2.1 Negligence 64
2.2.1.1 Legal Duty and Breach of Duty 65
2.2.1.2 Cognizable Injury 66
2.2.1.3 Causation 69
2.2.2 Negligent Misrepresentation or Omission 70
2.2.3 Breach of Contract 72
2.2.4 Breach of Implied Warranty 76
2.2.5 Invasion of Privacy by Publication of Private Facts 80
2.2.6 Unjust Enrichment 81
2.2.7 State Consumer Protection Laws 82
2.3 Class Action Certification in Data Breach Litigation 84
2.4 Insurance Coverage for Cybersecurity Incidents 90
2.5 Protecting Cybersecurity Work Product and Communications from Discovery 94
2.5.1 Attorney-Client Privilege 96
2.5.2 Work Product Doctrine 98
2.5.3 Non-Testifying Expert Privilege 101
2.5.4 Applying the Three Privileges to Cybersecurity: Genesco v. Visa 102
3 Cybersecurity Requirements for Specific Industries 105
3.1 Financial Institutions: Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act Safeguards Rule 106
3.1.1 Interagency Guidelines 106
3.1.2 Securities and Exchange Commission Regulation S-P 109
3.1.3 FTC Safeguards Rule 110
3.2 Financial Institutions and Creditors: Red Flag Rule 112
3.2.1 Financial Institutions or Creditors 113
3.2.2 Covered Accounts 113
3.2.3 Requirements for a Red Flag Identity Theft Prevention Program 114
3.3 Companies That Use Payment and Debit Cards: Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) 115
3.4 Health Providers: Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Security Rule 118
3.5 Electric Utilities: Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Critical Infrastructure Protection Reliability Standards 124
3.5.1 CIP-003-6: Cybersecurity - Security Management Controls 124
3.5.2 CIP-004-6: Personnel and Training 125
3.5.3 CIP-006-6: Physical Security of Cyber Systems 125
3.5.4 CIP-007-6: Systems Security Management 125
3.5.5 CIP-009-6: Recovery Plans for Cyber Systems 126
3.5.6 CIP-010-2: Configuration Change Management and Vulnerability Assessments 126
3.5.7 CIP-011-2: Information Protection 126
3.6 Nuclear Regulatory Commission Cybersecurity Regulations 127
4 Cybersecurity and Corporate Governance 133
4.1 Securities and Exchange Commission Cybersecurity Expectations for Publicly Traded Companies 134
4.1.1 10-K Disclosures: Risk Factors 135
4.1.2 10-K Disclosures: Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (MD&A) 137
4.1.3 10-K Disclosures: Description of Business 137
4.1.4 10-K Disclosures: Legal Proceedings 138
4.1.5 10-K Disclosures: Examples 138
4.1.5.1 Wal-Mart 138
4.1.5.2 Berkshire Hathaway 142
4.1.5.3 Target Corp 143
4.1.6 Disclosing Data Breaches to Investors 146
4.2 Fiduciary Duty to Shareholders and Derivative Lawsuits Arising from Data Breaches 149
4.3 Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States and Cybersecurity 151
4.4 Export Controls and the Wassenaar Arrangement 153
5 Anti-Hacking Laws 157
5.1 Computer Fraud and Abuse Act 158
5.1.1 Origins of the CFAA 158
5.1.2 Access without Authorization and Exceeding Authorized Access 159
5.1.2.1 Narrow View of "Exceeds Authorized Access" and "without Authorization" 161
5.1.2.2 Broader View of "Exceeds Authorized Access" and "without Authorization" 165
5.1.2.3 Attempts to Find a Middle Ground 167
5.1.3 The Seven Sections of the CFAA 168
5.1.3.1 CFAA Section (a)(1): Hacking to Commit Espionage 170
5.1.3.2 CFAA Section (a)(2): Hacking to Obtain Information 170
5.1.3.3 CFAA Section (a)(3): Hacking a Federal Government Computer 174
5.1.3.4 CFAA Section (a)(4): Hacking to Commit Fraud 176
5.1.3.5 CFAA Section (a)(5): Hacking to Damage a Computer 179
5.1.3.5.1 CFAA Section (a)(5)(A): Knowing Transmission That Intentionally Damages a Computer without Authorization 179
5.1.3.5.2 CFAA Section (a)(5)(B): Intentional Access without Authorization That Recklessly Causes Damage 182
5.1.3.5.3 CFAA Section (a)(5)(C): Intentional Access without Authorization That Causes Damage and Loss 183
5.1.3.5.4 CFAA Section (a)(5): Requirements for Felony and Misdemeanor Cases 184
5.1.3.6 CFAA Section (a)(6): Trafficking in Passwords 186
5.1.3.7 CFAA Section (a)(7): Threatening to Damage or Obtain Information from a Computer 188
5.1.4 Civil Actions under the CFAA 191
5.1.5 Criticisms of the CFAA 193
5.2 State Computer Hacking Laws 196
5.3 Section 1201 of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act 199
5.3.1 Origins of Section 1201 of the DMCA 200
5.3.2 Three Key Provisions of Section 1201 of the DMCA 201
5.3.2.1 DMCA Section 1201(a)(1) 201
5.3.2.2 DMCA Section 1201(a)(2) 206
5.3.2.2.1 Narrow Interpretation of Section (a)(2): Chamberlain Group v. Skylink Technologies 207
5.3.2.2.2 Broad Interpretation of Section (a)(2): MDY Industries, LLC v. Blizzard Entertainment, Inc. 209
5.3.2.3 DMCA Section 1201(b)(1) 213
5.3.3 Section 1201 Penalties 215
5.3.4 Section 1201 Exemptions 216
5.3.5 The First Amendment and DMCA Section 1201 222
5.4 Economic Espionage Act 225
5.4.1 Origins of the Economic Espionage Act 226
5.4.2 Criminal Prohibitions on Economic Espionage and Theft of Trade Secrets 227
5.4.2.1 Definition of "Trade Secret" 228
5.4.2.2 "Knowing" Violations of the Economic Espionage Act 232
5.4.2.3 Purpose and Intent Required under Section 1831: Economic Espionage 232
5.4.2.4 Purpose and Intent Required under Section 1832: Theft of Trade Secrets 234
5.4.3 Civil Actions for Trade Secret Misappropriation: The Defend Trade Secrets Act of 2016 236
5.4.3.1 Definition of "Misappropriation" 237
5.4.3.2 Civil Seizures 238
5.4.3.3 Injunctions 239
5.4.3.4 Damages 239
5.4.3.5 Statute of Limitations 240
6 Public-Private Cybersecurity Partnerships 241
6.1 U.S. Government's Civilian Cybersecurity Organization 242
6.2 Department of Homeland Security Information Sharing under the Cybersecurity Act of 2015 243
6.3 Energy Department's Cyber-Threat Information Sharing 247
6.4 Critical Infrastructure Executive Order and the National Institute of Standards and Technology's Cybersecurity Framework 248
6.5 U.S. Military Involvement in Cybersecurity and the Posse Comitatus Act 254
7 Surveillance and Cyber 257
7.1 Fourth Amendment 258
7.1.1 Was the Search or Seizure Conducted by a Government Entity or Government Agent? 259
7.1.2 Did the Search or Seizure Invade an Individual's Protected Interests? 263
7.1.3 Did the Government Have a Warrant? 267
7.1.4 If the Government Did Not Have a Warrant, Did an Exception to the Warrant Requirement Apply? 269
7.1.5 Was the Search or Seizure Reasonable under the Totality of the Circumstances? 271
7.2 Electronic Communications Privacy Act 273
7.2.1 Stored Communications Act 274
7.2.1.1 Section 2701: Third-Party Hacking of Stored Communications 276
7.2.1.2 Section 2702: Restrictions on Service Providers' Ability to Disclose Stored Communications and Records to the Government and Private Parties 277
7.2.1.2.1 The Cybersecurity Act of 2015: Allowing Service Providers to Disclose Cybersecurity Threats to the Government 280
7.2.1.3 Section 2703: Government's Ability to Force Service Providers to Turn over Stored Communications and Customer Records 282
7.2.2 Wiretap Act 284
7.2.3 Pen Register Act 288
7.2.4 National Security Letters 289
7.3 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) 291
7.4 Encryption and the All Writs Act 292
8 Cybersecurity and Federal Government Contractors 297
8.1 Federal Information Security Management Act 298
8.2 NIST Information Security Controls for Government Agencies and Contractors 299
8.3 Classified Information Cybersecurity 304
8.4 Covered Defense Information and Controlled Unclassified Information 307
9 Privacy Laws 315
9.1 Section 5 of the FTC Act and Privacy 316
9.2 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 322
9.3 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act and California Financial Information Privacy Act 324
9.4 CAN-SPAM Act 325
9.5 Video Privacy Protection Act 326
9.6 Children's Online Privacy Protection Act 328
9.7 California Online Privacy Laws 330
9.7.1 California Online Privacy Protection Act (CalOPPA) 330
9.7.2 California Shine the Light Law 331
9.7.3 California Minor "Eraser Law" 333
9.8 Illinois Biometric Information Privacy Act 335
10 International Cybersecurity Law 337
10.1 European Union 338
10.2 Canada 344
10.3 China 348
10.4 Mexico 351
10.5 Japan 354
Appendix A: Text of Section 5 of the FTC Act 359
Appendix B: Summary of State Data Breach Notification Laws 367
Appendix C: Text of Section 1201 of the Digital Millennium
Copyright Act 411
Appendix D: Text of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act 423
Appendix E: Text of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act 431
Index 483
