Oxide Films and Conduction AFM xi
List of Contributors xv
1 History and Status of the CAFM 1
Chengbin Pan, Yuanyuan Shi, Fei Hui, Enric Grustan-Gutierrez, and Mario Lanza
1.1 The Atomic Force Microscope 1
1.2 The Conductive Atomic Force Microscope 4
1.3 History and Status of the CAFM 9
1.4 Editor's Choice: On the Use of CAFM to Study Nanogenerators Based on Nanowires 16
1.5 Conclusions 20
References 20
2 Fabrication and Reliability of Conductive AFM Probes 29
Oliver Krause
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Manufacturing of Conductive AFM Probes 30
2.2.1 Thin Film Cantilever 30
2.2.2 Corner Tips 30
2.2.3 Etched Silicon Probes 31
2.2.4 Coating of Probes 32
2.2.5 ConductiveThin Film Probes 34
2.2.6 Material Conversion 35
2.3 How to Choose Your C-AFM Tip 36
2.3.1 Cantilever Choice 36
2.3.2 Tip Material Choice 36
2.3.3 Resolution of C-AFM Tips 37
2.4 TipWear and Sample Damage: Applicable Forces and Currents in C-AFM 38
2.4.1 TipWear: MechanicalWear - Varying Forces 38
2.4.2 TipWear: MechanicalWear - Different Materials 39
2.4.3 TipWear: ElectricalWear 39
2.4.4 Tip Damage by Excess Voltage/High Currents 40
2.4.5 Damaging the Sample Surface 42
2.5 Conclusions 43
References 43
3 Fundamentals of CAFM Operation Modes 45
Guenther Benstetter, Alexander Hofer, Donping Liu,Werner Frammelsberger, and Mario Lanza
3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Tip-Sample Interaction: Contact Area, Effective Emission Area, and Conduction Mechanisms 47
3.2.1 CAFM Tip on Metallic Surfaces 49
3.2.2 CAFM Tip on Semiconducting Surfaces 50
3.2.3 CAFM Tip on Insulating Surfaces 52
3.3 Work Function Difference and Offset Voltage 56
3.4 Operation Modes 60
3.4.1 Contact Mode 61
3.4.2 PeakForce Mode 62
3.4.3 Torsional Resonance Mode 63
3.5 Case Studies 64
3.5.1 Defects in SiC after Plasma Exposure in Fusion Reactors 64
3.5.2 Electrical Conductivity of Dislocations in GaN 67
3.5.3 Microstructure and Local Electrical Conductivity of Laser-Sintered Nanoparticles 69
3.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 70
Acknowledgment 70
References 71
4 Investigation of High-k Dielectric Stacks by C-AFM: Advantages, Limitations, and Possible Applications 79
Mathias Rommel and Albena Paskaleva
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Comparison BetweenMacroscopic I-V Measurements and C-AFM 81
4.3 Influence of Displacement Currents on the Sensitivity of C-AFM Measurements 85
4.4 Applications of C-AFM 89
4.4.1 Morphology ofThin Dielectric Films 89
4.4.2 Assessment of the Interfacial SiO2 Thickness 94
4.4.3 Trapping Phenomena and DegradationMechanism in High-k Dielectric Stacks 98
4.4.4 Reliability of High-k Dielectric Films 104
4.4.4.1 Gate Oxide Reliability at the Nanoscale 104
4.4.4.2 In-Depth Analysis of Bimodal TDDB Distributions 109
4.5 Conclusion 112
References 113
5 Characterization of Grain Boundaries in Polycrystalline HfO2 Dielectrics 119
Shubhakar Kalya, Sean Joseph O'Shea, and Kin Leong Pey
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Experimental Details and Sample Specifications 120
5.3 Formation of Grain Boundaries and Its Local Electrical Properties in HfO2 Dielectric 120
5.4 RVS and CVS Stressing of HfO2/SiOx Dielectric Stack 124
5.5 Uniform Stressing with Successive Scanning in CAFM Mode 126
5.6 Conclusions 130
References 130
6 CAFM Studies on Individual GeSi Quantum Dots and Quantum Rings 133
RongWu, Shengli Zhang, Yi Lv, Fei Xue, Yifei Zhang, and Xinju Yang
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Conductive Properties of Individual GeSi QDs and QRs 134
6.2.1 Conductive Property Studies on Individual GeSi QDs 135
6.2.1.1 Growth Temperature Dependence 135
6.2.1.2 Electrical Property Changing with the Capping of Si Layer 137
6.2.2 The Conductive Mechanism of GeSi QRs 140
6.3 Modulating the Conductive Properties of GeSi QDs 144
6.3.1 Oxidation and Normal Force 144
6.3.2 Bias Voltage 146
6.3.3 Inter-Dot Coupling 149
6.4 SimultaneousMeasurements of Composition and Current
Distributions of GeSi QRs 152
6.5 Conclusions 157
References 157
7 Conductive Atomic ForceMicroscopy of Two-Dimensional Electron Systems: FromAlGaN/GaN Heterostructures to Graphene and MoS2 163
Filippo Giannazzo, Gabriele Fisichella, Giuseppe Greco, Patrick Fiorenza, and Fabrizio Roccaforte
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Nanoscale Electrical Characterization of AlGaN/GaN Heterostructures 164
7.2.1 Contacts to AlGaN/GaN Heterostructures 165
7.2.2 Electrical Nanocharacterization of AlGaN Surface Passivated by a RapidThermal Oxidation 168
7.2.3 CAFMon Dielectrics for Gate Insulated AlGaN/GaN Transistors 169
7.3 CAFM Characterization of Graphene and MoS2 171
7.3.1 Local Electrical Properties of Graphene 2DEG 173
7.3.2 Nanoscale Inhomogeneity of the Schottky Barrier and Resistivity in MoS2 175
7.3.3 Graphene Contacts to AlGaN/GaN Heterostructures 178
7.4 Conclusions 181
Acknowledgments 182
References 182
8 Nanoscale Three-Dimensional Characterization with Scalpel SPM 187
Umberto Celano andWilfried Vandervorst
8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 SPM Metrology with Depth Information 188
8.3 Scalpel SPM: A Tip-Based Slice-and-ViewMethodology 190
8.3.1 General Description 190
8.3.2 Practical Implementation 193
8.4 Applications 196
8.4.1 Scalpel SPM for 3D Observation of Conductive Filaments in Resistive Memories 196
8.4.2 Mechanisms for Filament Growth 200
8.4.3 Chemical Nature of the Filament 202
8.4.4 Scalpel SPM for Failure Analysis 203
8.5 Conclusions and Outlook 206
References 207
9 Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy for Nanolithography Based on Local Anodic Oxidation 211
Matteo Lorenzoni and Francesc Perez-Murano
9.1 Introduction to AFM Nanolithography 211
9.2 Local Anodic Oxidation 212
9.3 Kinetics of LAO 214
9.4 Measurement of Electrical Current During LAO 217
9.5 Conclusions 219
Acknowledgments 219
References 220
10 Combination of Semiconductor Parameter Analyzer and Conductive Atomic ForceMicroscope for Advanced Nanoelectronic Characterization 225
Vanessa Iglesias, Xu Jing, and Mario Lanza
10.1 Introduction 225
10.2 Combination of SPA and CAFM for Local Channel Hot Carrier Degradation Analysis 227
10.3 Combination of CAFMand SPA for Resistive Switching Analyses 230
10.3.1 Device-Level Stress with SPA Followed by CAFM Characterization 230
10.3.2 Direct Connection of SPA to the CAFM 235
10.4 Conclusions 237
References 238
11 Design and Fabrication of a Logarithmic Amplifier for Scanning Probe Microscopes to AllowWide-Range Current Measurements 243
Lidia Aguilera and Joan Grifoll-Soriano
11.1 Introduction 243
11.2 Fabrication of a Logarithmic Preamplifier for CAFMS 244
11.2.1 Design 244
11.2.2 Fabrication and Testing 249
11.2.2.1 Printed Circuit Board 249
11.2.2.2 Cleaning 250
11.2.2.3 Decoupling 250
11.2.2.4 Input and Output Isolation 251
11.2.2.5 Unexpected Passive Components in the PCB 251
11.2.3 Implementation in a CAFM and Case Study 255
11.3 Conclusions 260
References 261
12 Enhanced Current Dynamic Range Using ResiScopeTM and Soft-ResiScope AFMModes 263
Louis Pacheco and Nicolas F. Martinez
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Conductive AFM 264
12.3 ResiScopeTM Mode 267
12.4 Soft-ResiScope Mode 271
12.5 Conclusions 275
References 275
13 Multiprobe Electrical Measurements without Optical Interference 277
David Lewis, Andrey Ignatov, Sasha Krol, Rimma Dekhter, and Alina Strinkovsky
13.1 Introduction 277
13.2 The Multiprobe Platform: Design and Key Features 279
13.2.1 The Scanner 279
13.2.2 The Probes 281
13.2.3 Feedback of Multiprobe Systems 282
13.3 The Present and the Future 284
13.3.1 AFM Multiprobe Application 284
13.3.2 Optical Multiprobe Operation 285
13.3.3 Thermal Measurements 285
13.3.4 NanoElectrical Transport Measurements 287
13.3.5 New Horizons in Multiprobe Measurements 291
13.4 Conclusions 292
References 293
14 KPFM and its Use to Characterize the CPD in Different Materials 297
Yijun Xia and Bo Song
14.1 Introduction 297
14.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 297
14.2.1 Basic Principle of Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy 297
14.2.2 KPFM OperationalModes: AM- and FM-Mode 299
14.2.3 KPFM Measurement, at Ambient or UHV Conditions 300
14.3 Applications of KPFM 301
14.3.1 KPFM on Conventional Inorganic Materials 301
14.3.1.1 Metallic Nanostructures 301
14.3.1.2 Semiconductor Surfaces 302
14.3.2 KPFM on Organic Adsorbates on Surfaces 304
14.3.3 Characterization of the Electrical Properties of Nanoscaled Devices 305
14.3.3.1 Junctions and Heterostructrues 305
14.3.3.2 Transistors 307
14.3.3.3 Solar Cells 308
14.4 Conclusion and Outlook 311
Acknowledgment 312
References 312
15 Hot Electron Nanoscopy and Spectroscopy (HENs) 319
Andrea Giugni, Bruno Torre, Marco Allione, Gerardo Perozziello, Patrizio Candeloro, and Enzo Di Fabrizio
15.1 Introduction 319
15.2 Coupling Schemes 321
15.3 Plasmonic Device and Optical Characterization 326
15.4 Theoretical Section 327
15.4.1 Semiclassical Considerations 329
15.4.2 Quantum Mechanical Considerations 333
15.4.3 Quantum Confinement 334
15.5 HENs Measurements: Plasmon-Assisted Current Maps and Ultimate Spatial Resolution 335
15.5.1 Hot Electron Mapping 336
15.5.2 Hot Electron Resolution Limit 338
15.6 Kelvin Probe, HENs, and Electrical Techniques 340
15.6.1 SKPMTheoretical Frame: a Short Introduction 340
15.6.2 HENs 344
15.6.2.1 Spatial Resolution 344
15.6.2.2 Sensitivity and Specificity 344
15.7 Fast Pulses in Adiabatic Compression for Hot Electron Generation 347
15.8 Conclusion 348
Acknowledgments 349
References 349
Index 355
