Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
Nomenclature xvii
1 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration 1
1.1 Chemical Products 1
1.2 Formulation of Design Problems 3
1.3 Synthesis and Simulation 4
1.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration 6
1.5 Continuous and Batch Processes 8
1.6 New Design and Retrofit 11
1.7 Reliability, Availability and Maintainability 11
1.8 Process Control 12
1.9 Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration 13
1.10 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration - Summary 16
References 17
2 Process Economics 19
2.1 The Role of Process Economics 19
2.2 Capital Cost for New Design 19
2.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit 25
2.4 Annualized Capital Cost 26
2.5 Operating Cost 27
2.6 Simple Economic Criteria 30
2.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation 31
2.8 Investment Criteria 33
2.9 Process Economics-Summary 34
2.10 Exercises 34
References 36
3 Optimization 37
3.1 Objective Functions 37
3.2 Single-Variable Optimization 40
3.3 Multivariable Optimization 42
3.4 Constrained Optimization 45
3.5 Linear Programming 47
3.6 Nonlinear Programming 49
3.7 Structural Optimization 50
3.8 Solution of Equations Using Optimization 54
3.9 The Search for Global Optimality 55
3.10 Optimization - Summary 56
3.11 Exercises 56
References 58
4 Chemical Reactors I - Reactor Performance 59
4.1 Reaction Path 59
4.2 Types of Reaction Systems 61
4.3 Measures of Reactor Performance 63
4.4 Rate of Reaction 64
4.5 Idealized Reactor Models 65
4.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model 73
4.7 Choice of Reactor Performance 76
4.8 Reactor Performance - Summary 77
4.9 Exercises 78
References 79
5 Chemical Reactors II - Reactor Conditions 81
5.1 Reaction Equilibrium 81
5.2 Reactor Temperature 85
5.3 Reactor Pressure 92
5.4 Reactor Phase 93
5.5 Reactor Concentration 94
5.6 Biochemical Reactions 99
5.7 Catalysts 99
5.8 Reactor Conditions - Summary 102
5.9 Exercises 103
References 105
6 Chemical Reactors III - Reactor Configuration 107
6.1 Temperature Control 107
6.2 Catalyst Degradation 111
6.3 Gas-Liquid and Liquid-Liquid Reactors 112
6.4 Reactor Configuration 116
6.5 Reactor Configuration For Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions 121
6.6 Reactor Configuration - Summary 122
6.7 Exercises 122
References 123
7 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures 125
7.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation 125
7.2 Settling and Sedimentation 126
7.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation 130
7.4 Electrostatic Precipitation 131
7.5 Filtration 133
7.6 Scrubbing 134
7.7 Flotation 135
7.8 Drying 136
7.9 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures - Summary 137
7.10 Exercises 137
References 138
8 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I - Distillation 139
8.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 139
8.2 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 141
8.3 Single-Stage Separation 146
8.4 Distillation 146
8.5 Binary Distillation 150
8.6 Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 155
8.7 Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 162
8.8 Column Dimensions 164
8.9 Conceptual Design of Distillation 174
8.10 Detailed Design of Distillation 176
8.11 Limitations of Distillation 179
8.12 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation - Summary 180
8.13 Exercises 180
References 183
9 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II - Other Methods 185
9.1 Absorption and Stripping 185
9.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 189
9.3 Adsorption 196
9.4 Membranes 199
9.5 Crystallization 211
9.6 Evaporation 215
9.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods - Summary 217
9.8 Exercises 217
References 219
10 Distillation Sequencing 221
10.1 Distillation Sequencing using Simple Columns 221
10.2 Practical Constraints Restricting Options 221
10.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns 222
10.4 Distillation Sequencing using Columns With More Than Two Products 229
10.5 Distillation Sequencing using Thermal Coupling 231
10.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences 236
10.7 Crude Oil Distillation 237
10.8 Structural Optimization of Distillation Sequences 239
10.9 Distillation Sequencing - Summary 242
10.10 Exercises 242
References 245
11 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation 247
11.1 Azeotropic Systems 247
11.2 Change in Pressure 247
11.3 Representation of Azeotropic Distillation 248
11.4 Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions 250
11.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions 255
11.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions 256
11.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer 259
11.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation 264
11.9 Entrainer Selection 267
11.10 Multicomponent Systems 270
11.11 Trade-Offs in Azeotropic Distillation 270
11.12 Membrane Separation 270
11.13 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation - Summary 271
11.14 Exercises 272
References 273
12 Heat Exchange 275
12.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 275
12.2 Heat Exchanger Fouling 279
12.3 Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 281
12.4 Heat Exchanger Geometry 288
12.5 Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 294
12.6 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 294
12.7 Rating and Simulation of Heat Exchangers 301
12.8 Heat Transfer Enhancement 307
12.9 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers 313
12.10 Condensers 316
12.11 Reboilers and Vaporizers 321
12.12 Other Types of Heat Exchangers 326
12.13 Fired Heaters 328
12.14 Heat Exchange - Summary 345
12.15 Exercises 346
References 348
13 Pumping and Compression 349
13.1 Pressure Drops in Process Operations 349
13.2 Pressure Drops in Piping Systems 349
13.3 Pump Types 355
13.4 Centrifugal Pump Performance 356
13.5 Compressor Types 363
13.6 Reciprocating Compressors 366
13.7 Dynamic Compressors 367
13.8 Staged Compression 369
13.9 Compressor Performance 370
13.10 Process Expanders 372
13.11 Pumping and Compression - Summary 374
13.12 Exercises 374
References 375
14 Continuous Process Recycle Structure 377
14.1 The Function of Process Recycles 377
14.2 Recycles with Purges 382
14.3 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 385
14.4 The Process Yield 386
14.5 Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage 388
14.6 Continuous Process Recycle Structure - Summary 389
14.7 Exercises 389
References 391
15 Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization 393
15.1 Physical Property Models for Process Simulation 393
15.2 Unit Models for Process Simulation 394
15.3 Flowsheet Models 400
15.4 Simulation of Recycles 400
15.5 Convergence of Recycles 402
15.6 Design Specifications 408
15.7 Flowsheet Sequencing 408
15.8 Model Validation 408
15.9 Process Optimization 408
15.10 Continuous Process Simulation and Optimization - Summary 413
15.11 Exercises 413
References 416
16 Batch Processes 417
16.1 Characteristics of Batch Processes 417
16.2 Batch Reactors 417
16.3 Batch Distillation 420
16.4 Batch Crystallization 431
16.5 Batch Filtration 432
16.6 Batch Heating and Cooling 433
16.7 Optimization of Batch Operations 436
16.8 Gantt Charts 442
16.9 Production Schedules for Single Products 442
16.10 Production Schedules for Multiple Products 444
16.11 Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer 445
16.12 Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes 446
16.13 Storage in Batch Processes 452
16.14 Batch Processes - Summary 452
16.15 Exercises 452
References 455
17 Heat Exchanger Networks I - Network Targets 457
17.1 Composite Curves 457
17.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch 461
17.3 Threshold Problems 464
17.4 The Problem Table Algorithm 466
17.5 Non-global Minimum Temperature Differences 472
17.6 Process Constraints 473
17.7 Utility Selection 475
17.8 Furnaces 477
17.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation) 480
17.10 Integration of Heat Pumps 485
17.11 Number of Heat Exchange Units 486
17.12 Heat Exchange Area Targets 489
17.13 Sensitivity of Targets 493
17.14 Capital and Total Cost Targets 493
17.15 Heat Exchanger Network Targets - Summary 496
17.16 Exercises 496
References 499
18 Heat Exchanger Networks II - Network Design 501
18.1 The Pinch Design Method 501
18.2 Design for Threshold Problems 507
18.3 Stream Splitting 507
18.4 Design for Multiple Pinches 511
18.5 Remaining Problem Analysis 516
18.6 Simulation of Heat Exchanger Networks 518
18.7 Optimization of a Fixed Network Structure 520
18.8 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Design 523
18.9 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit with a Fixed Network Structure 525
18.10 Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit through Structural Changes 530
18.11 Automated Methods of Heat Exchanger Network Retrofit 536
18.12 Heat Exchanger Network Design - Summary 538
18.13 Exercises 539
References 542
19 Heat Exchanger Networks III - Stream Data 543
19.1 Process Changes for Heat Integration 543
19.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost 543
19.3 Data Extraction 544
19.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data - Summary 551
19.5 Exercises 551
References 553
20 Heat Integration of Reactors 555
20.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors 555
20.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors 557
20.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors 558
20.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration 560
20.5 Heat Integration of Reactors - Summary 561
20.6 Exercises 561
Reference 561
21 Heat Integration of Distillation 563
21.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation 563
21.2 The Appropriate Placement of Distillation 563
21.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation 564
21.4 Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration 564
21.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation 567
21.6 Capital Cost Considerations for the Integration of Distillation 567
21.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences 568
21.8 Design of Heat Integrated Distillation Sequences 571
21.9 Heat Integration of Distillation - Summary 572
21.10 Exercises 572
References 575
22 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers 577
22.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators 577
22.2 Appropriate Placement of Evaporators 577
22.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration 577
22.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers 579
22.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration 579
22.6 A Case Study 581
22.7 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers - Summary 581
22.8 Exercises 582
References 582
23 Steam Systems and Cogeneration 583
23.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 585
23.2 Steam Boilers 589
23.3 Gas Turbines 595
23.4 Steam Turbines 602
23.5 Steam Distrubution 609
23.6 Site Composite Curves 612
23.7 Cogeneration Targets 623
23.8 Power Generation and Machine Drives 627
23.9 Utility Simulation 631
23.10 Optimizing Steam Systems 633
23.11 Steam Costs 638
23.12 SteamSystems andCogeneration - Summary 641
23.13 Exercises 642
References 645
24 Cooling and Refrigeration Systems 647
24.1 Cooling Systems 647
24.2 Once-Through Water Cooling 647
24.3 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems 647
24.4 Air Coolers 650
24.5 Refrigeration 656
24.6 Choice of a Single-Component Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration 662
24.7 Targeting Refrigeration Power for Pure Component Compression Refrigeration 665
24.8 Heat Integration of Pure Component Compression Refrigeration Processes 669
24.9 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration 673
24.10 Expanders 677
24.11 Absorption Refrigeration 681
24.12 Indirect Refrigeration 682
24.13 Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems - Summary 682
24.14 Exercises 683
References 685
25 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions 687
25.1 Atmospheric Pollution 687
25.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution 688
25.3 Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere 690
25.4 Control of VOC Emissions 690
25.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions 703
25.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions 708
25.7 Control of Combustion Emissions 711
25.8 Atmospheric Dispersion 714
25.9 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions - Summary 716
25.10 Exercises 717
References 720
26 Water System Design 721
26.1 Aqueous Contamination 724
26.2 Primary Treatment Processes 725
26.3 Biological Treatment Processes 729
26.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes 732
26.5 Water Use 733
26.6 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads 735
26.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Mass Loads 737
26.8 Targeting for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates 747
26.9 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants for Operations with Fixed Flowrates 751
26.10 Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 758
26.11 Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption 760
26.12 Targeting for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 761
26.13 Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 765
26.14 Regeneration of Wastewater 767
26.15 Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 772
26.16 Data Extraction 773
26.17 Water System Design - Summary 775
26.18 Exercises 776
References 779
27 Environmental Sustainability in Chemical Production 781
27.1 Life Cycle Assessment 781
27.2 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Within Processes 786
27.3 Efficient Use of Raw Materials Between Processes 792
27.4 Exploitation of Renewable Raw Materials 794
27.5 Efficient Use of Energy 795
27.6 Integration of Waste Treament and Energy Sytems 805
27.7 Renewable Energy 806
27.8 Efficient Use of Water 807
27.9 Sustainability in Chemical Production - Summary 807
27.10 Exercises 808
References 809
28 Process Safety 811
28.1 Fire 811
28.2 Explosion 812
28.3 Toxic Release 813
28.4 Hazard Identification 813
28.5 The Hierarchy of Safety Management 815
28.6 Inherently Safer Design 815
28.7 Layers of Protection 819
28.8 Hazard and Operability Studies 822
28.9 Layer of Protection Analysis 823
28.10 Process Safety - Summary 823
28.11 Exercises 824
References 825
Appendix A Physical Properties in Process Design 827
A.1 Equations of State 827
A.2 Phase Equilibrium for Single Components 831
A.3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium 831
A.4 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 831
A.5 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models 833
A.6 Group Contribution Methods for Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 835
A.7 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State 837
A.8 Calculation of Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium 838
A.9 Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium 841
A.10 Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models 842
A.11 Calculation of Liquid-Liquid Equilibrium 842
A.12 Choice of Method for Equilibrium Calculations 844
A.13 Calculation of Enthalpy 846
A.14 Calculation of Entropy 847
A.15 Other Physical Properties 848
A.16 Physical Properties in Process Design - Summary 850
A.17 Exercises 851
References 852
Appendix B Materials of Construction 853
B.1 Mechanical Properties 853
B.2 Corrosion 854
B.3 Corrosion Allowance 855
B.4 Commonly Used Materials of Construction 855
B.5 Criteria for Selection 859
B.6 Materials of Construction - Summary 860
References 860
Appendix C Annualization of Capital Cost 861
Reference 861
Appendix D The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1-2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 863
References 863
Appendix E Expression for the Minimum Number of 1-2 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit 865
References 866
Appendix F Heat Transfer Coefficient and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 867
F.1 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Tube Side 867
F.2 Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for the Shell Side 869
References 873
Appendix G Gas Compression Theory 875
G.1 Modeling Reciprocating Compressors 875
G.2 Modeling Dynamic Compressors 877
G.3 Staged Compression 877
References 879
Appendix H Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target 881
Index 883
