Preface xv
1 Fundamental Concepts 1
Simple Food Chain Theory 1
Ecological Pyramids 3
Recycling and the Microbial Loop 6
Food Chain Magnification 9
Food Webs 10
Food Webs and Ecosystem Stability 12
Questions 13
References 15
2 Photosynthesis 17
Light Limitation of Photosynthesis 18
Nutrient Limitation of Photosynthesis 22
Nutrient Enrichment Experiments 26
Long Island Bays 30
Canadian Experimental Lakes 31
Nitrogen versus Phosphorus Limitation 33
Questions 37
References 38
3 Physical Factors Affecting Production 43
Physical Properties of Water 43
Water Column Stability and Overturning 45
The Importance of Overturning 48
Seasonal Production Cycles 49
Trophic Status 50
Susceptibility of Systems to Oxygen Depletion 51
Estuaries: A Special Case 52
Chesapeake Bay 55
The Gulf of Mexico Hypoxic Zone 64
Questions 67
References 68
Contents
4 Cultural Eutrophication Case Studies 71
Case Study 1: Lake Washington 72
History of Eutrophication 73
Effects of Sewage Diversion 76
Nutrient Limitation 79
Oxygen Depletion 80
Water Clarity 83
Cyanobacteria 84
Theoretical Predictions 85
Case Study 2: Lake Erie 88
The Destruction of Fish Spawning and Nursery Grounds as a Result of Land-Use Modifications 89
The Depletion of Fish Stocks Due to Overfishing 90
The Creation of Anoxic Bottom Water Conditions Due to Cultural Eutrophication 93
The Disposal of Toxic Wastes 94
Sediment in Land Runoff 96
Contamination of Nearshore Areas with Sewage Wastes 96
Remedial Efforts 98
Toxic Substances 98
Eutrophication 99
Prospects for Lake Erie 105
Case Study 3: Kaneohe Bay 114
Physical Setting 114
The Coral Reefs 116
Urbanization of the Watershed 116
Changes in Land Runoff 116
Sewage Disposal 119
Effects of Sewage Disposal 120
Response to Sewage Diversion 121
Current Status and Prospects for Kaneohe Bay 123
Questions 126
References 128
5 Nonpoint Source Pollution 133
Definitions 133
Composition of Land Runoff 134
Types of Sewer Systems 136
Corrective Measures 138
Use of Settling Basins 138
Ground Recharge Basins 139
Storage in Underflow Tunnels or Tanks 140
Minimizing Runoff 141
Summary 143
A Case Study: Lake Jackson, Florida 143
Correctives 150
Questions 155
References 156
6 Sewage Treatment 159
Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Treatment 159
Secondary Treatment for BOD Removal 161
Trickling Filters 161
Activated Sludge 162
Pros and Cons of Trickling Filter and Activated Sludge Treatment 163
The Anaerobic Digester 164
Tertiary Treatment 165
Phosphorus Removal 166
Nitrogen Removal 167
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products 168
Cost of Conventional Sewage Treatment 169
Land Application of Sewage 170
Results of Spray Irrigation Studies 172
Limiting Factors 179
Use of Sewage Sludge 180
Unconventional Sewage Treatment 183
Detergent Phosphates 185
Questions 188
References 190
7 Pathogens in Natural Waters 195
Sources of Pathogens 197
Types of Pathogens and Their Detection 198
Bacterial Pathogens 199
Protozoan Pathogens 206
Viral Pathogens 208
Helminths 212
Tests for Pathogens 213
Treatment of Public Water Supplies 219
Removal of Suspended Solids 219
Filtration 219
Chlorination 220
Alternatives to Chlorination 221
Impact of Treatment 222
Questions 222
References 224
8 Toxicology 229
The Role of Toxicology in Water Quality Management 229
Kinds of Toxicity 231
Sublethal Effects 231
Reproduction 232
Development and Growth 234
Behavior 237
Determination of Toxicity 237
Acute Toxicity Determination 238
Chronic Toxicity Determination 239
Median Survival Times 240
Incipient Lethal Levels 241
Sublethal Effects 242
Water Quality Standards 243
Acute Effects 243
Chronic Toxicity 244
Acute/Chronic Ratios 245
Toxicity to Plants 247
The Two-Number Criterion 247
Complicating Factors 248
Interactions with Harmless Substances or Conditions 248
Incorporation into Water Quality Guidelines 250
Conditioning and Acclimation 252
Interactions between Toxic Substances 253
Public Health 257
Noncarcinogenic Effects 257
Application to Cadmium 260
Carcinogenic Effects 262
Protection of Wildlife 264
Commentary 264
Questions 265
References 268
9 Industrial Pollution 273
The Oxygen Sag 273
Innovative Strategies for Reducing Industrial Pollution 276
The Hawaiian Sugar Cane Industry 279
Sugar Cane Production: Field Operations 282
Sugar Cane Production: Harvesting 282
Sugar Cane Production: Factory Operations 283
Survey of Water Pollution Problems 285
Response to the EPA Survey 286
Present Status of the Industry 288
The Pulp and Paper Industry 290
Steps in the Production of Paper 292
Objectionable Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent 295
Suspended Solids 296
Dissolved Organics 298
Toxic Substances 299
Wastewater Treatment 300
A Case Study: The Buckeye Cellulose Corporation Pulp and Paper Mill at Perry, Florida 301
Commentary 304
Questions 306
References 307
10 Pesticides and Persistent Organic Pollutants 311
Classification of Pesticides 313
Mode of Action 315
Pesticide Use 316
Public Health 316
Use of DDT to Control Malaria 316
Agriculture 319
Forestry 321
Pesticide Effects on Nontarget Species 322
Forest Spraying with DDT to Control Spruce Budworms in New Brunswick, Canada 322
DDD Treatment to Control Gnat Populations on Clear Lake, California 323
Exaggerated and/or Erroneous Charges against Pesticide Use 324
The Destruction of Speckled Sea Trout in the Laguna Madre, Texas 325
DDT Reduces Photosynthesis by Marine Phytoplankton 326
DDT Residues of 5 ppm (Wet Weight) in the Eggs of Freshwater Trout Result in 100% Mortality of Fry 328
DDT Causes Cancer 330
Implications 331
Pesticide Persistence in the Biosphere and Food Chain Magnification 332
Pesticide Effects on Birds 336
Field Observations 337
Laboratory Studies 339
Summary of Pesticide Effects on Birds 342
Pest Resistance 343
Mechanisms of Resistance 344
The Cost of Pest Resistance 344
Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticide Use 345
Biological Control 345
Natural Predators and Parasites 345
Pathogens and Natural Toxins 346
Genetic Control 347
Resistant Plants 347
Sterile Males 348
Chemical Control 350
Integrated Pest Management 351
Commentary 353
EPA Hearings, 13 January, 1972. Afternoon Session 355
Persistent Organic Pollutants 359
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 359
Problems with PCBs 361
Persistence of PCBs 363
Questions 365
References 367
11 Thermal Pollution and Power Plants 375
Power Plant Design 376
Water Quality Criteria 377
Cooling Water System Characteristics 378
Toxic Effects of Effluent Waters on Biota 379
Sublethal Effects 381
Commentary 383
A Case Study - The Florida Power and Light Power Plant at Turkey Point 383
The Study Area 383
The Power Plant 385
Effects on Biota 386
Modifications 388
Commentary 389
Correctives 389
Cooling Canals 390
Cooling Towers 390
Problems 390
Internal Plant Kills 392
Screen Impingements 392
Inner Plant Kills 395
Commentary 397
Correctives 398
Possible Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges 400
Cogeneration Power Plants 400
Agriculture 402
Aquaculture 403
Other Uses 406
Questions 407
References 408
12 Metals 413
The Question of Biological Magnification 416
Case Studies 417
Mercury 418
Production and Uses 418
Fluxes to the Environment 422
Speciation of Mercury and Toxicology 426
Minamata Bay: A Case Study 432
Seafood Consumption 438
Cadmium 439
Distribution, Production, and Uses 439
Emissions to the Environment 442
Natural Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445
Anthropogenic Fluxes to Aquatic Systems 445
Toxicity 445
Itai-Itai Disease: A Case Study 447
Correctives and Prospects for the Future 451
Lead 453
Production and Use 453
Emissions 457
Toxicology 462
Commentary 465
Questions 469
References 471
13 Oil Pollution 479
Oil Discharges to the Marine Environment 480
Natural Sources 480
Marine Seeps 480
Anthropogenic Sources 481
Platforms 481
Atmospheric Deposition 482
Produced Waters 482
Pipeline Spills 482
Tanker Spills 482
Operational Discharges (Cargo Washings) 483
Coastal Facility Spills (Refined Products) 485
Atmospheric Deposition (From Tankers) 485
Land-Based Runoff 485
Recreational Marine Vessels 485
Spills (Non-tankers) 485
Operational Discharges (Vessels >100 GT) 486
Operational Discharges (Vessels <100 GT) 486
Atmospheric Deposition 486
Aircraft Dumping 486
Commentary 486
The Genesis of Oil 488
Sedimentation 488
Metamorphosis 489
Migration 489
What Is Oil? 490
Alkanes: Paraffins or Aliphatic Compounds 490
Cycloalkanes or Naphthenes 491
Aromatics 491
Toxicology 493
Oiling and Ingestion 493
Weathering 496
Lethal and Sublethal Effects 498
Human Health 500
Case Studies 501
Exxon Valdez 501
The Accident and Initial Containment Efforts 501
Cleanup 502
Fate of Spilled Oil 503
Effects on Organisms 503
Summary 507
Deepwater Horizon 508
Buzzards Bay 510
Summary 513
Correctives 514
Prevention 514
Cleanup 515
Offloading 515
Burning 516
Chemical Dispersal 516
Mechanical Containment and Cleanup 517
Sinking 517
Bioremediation 518
Summary 519
Oil Fingerprinting 520
Commentary 522
Questions 523
References 524
14 Radioactivity 529
Physical Background 529
Radiation Toxicology 532
The No Threshold and Linear Dose-Response Hypotheses 534
Health Effect Estimates 536
Current Levels of Exposure 538
Importance of Certain Radionuclides 541
Effects on Aquatic Systems 542
Nuclear Fission and Fission Reactors 544
Nuclear Fusion 550
Radiation Releases by Power Plants 552
Routine Radionuclide Releases 553
Accidents 556
The NRX Accident 556
Windscale 557
The SL-1 Incident 559
The Fermi Reactor Accident 560
The Three Mile Island Incident 562
Chernobyl 563
Fukushima Daiichi 565
Summary 565
Waste Disposal 569
Types of Radioactive Waste 569
History of Disposal 569
The Search for Long-Term Disposal Sites 573
Transmutation 576
Uranium Mine Wastes 576
Decommissioning Nuclear Reactors 579
Commentary 581
Questions 582
References 584
15 Acid Deposition and Ocean Acidification 589
Acid Deposition 589
Acid Rain 590
History of the Acid Deposition Problem 591
Susceptibility of Lakes to Acid Deposition Effects 594
Acid Deposition Toxicology 595
Magnitude of Anthropogenic Emissions 598
Correctives 600
SOx Removal 601
Pretreatment 601
Conversion 602
Coal Gasification 602
Coal Liquefaction 602
Methanol Production 602
Combustion 603
Fluidized Bed Combustion 603
Lime Injection in Multistage Burners (LIMB) 603
Post-combustion 603
Stack Gas Scrubbing 603
Electron Beam Method 604
NOx Removal 604
Pretreatment and Conversion 604
Combustion 604
Post-combustion 605
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle 605
Comments 605
Legal Aspects 606
A Case Study: The Netherlands 608
Commentary 610
Ocean Acidification 610
Solutions 617
Questions 618
References 618
16 Groundwater Pollution 623
Reliance on Groundwater 623
General Aquifer Information 624
Overdrafting 625
The Extent of Groundwater Pollution 627
Septic Tanks 627
Saltwater Contamination 627
Fracking 628
Sewage 628
Mining Activities 629
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 629
Toxic Chemicals 629
Illegal Disposal 632
Magnitude of the Problem 634
A Case Study: The Rocky Mountain Arsenal 636
Legal Considerations 641
RCRA 641
SDWA 642
CWA 643
CERCLA 644
Other Legislation 646
Enforcement 647
Correctives 648
Cleanup 648
Prevention 650
The EPA Groundwater Protection Strategy 653
Questions 654
References 655
17 Plastics in the Sea 659
The Nature of the Problem 659
Effects 661
Aesthetics 661
Ingestion 662
Entanglement 664
Ghost Fishing 665
Other Causes of Entanglement 667
Damage to Vessels 668
Correctives 668
MARPOL Annex V 668
Other Legislation 671
Degradable Plastic 673
Solutions Through Technology 673
Education 674
Questions 675
References 676
Units of Measurement and Abbreviations 681
References 683
Aquatic Pollution 685
Answers to Questions 685
References 705
Glossary 707
Index 733
