Preface xv
Part 1: Recent Advances in Bioelectronics 1
1 Micro- and Nanoelectrodes in Protein-Based Electrochemical Biosensors for Nanomedicine and Other Applications 3
Niina J. Ronkainen
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Microelectrodes 7
1.2.1 Electrochemistry and Advantages of Microelectrodes 7
1.2.2 Applications, Cleaning, and Performance of Microelectrodes 16
1.3 Nanoelectrodes 18
1.3.1 Electrochemistry and Advantages of Nanoelectrodes 21
1.3.2 Applications and Performance of Nanoelectrodes 23
1.4 Integration of the Electronic Transducer, Electrode, and Biological Recognition Components (such as Enzymes) in Nanoscale-Sized Biosensors and Their Clinical Applications 26
1.5 Conclusion 27
Acknowledgment 28
References 28
2 Radio-Frequency Biosensors for Label-Free Detection of Biomolecular Binding Systems 35
Hee-Jo Lee1, Sang-Gyu Kim, and Jong-Gwan Yook
2.1 Overview 35
2.2 Introduction 36
2.3 Carbon Nanotube-Based RF Biosensor 37
2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube 37
2.3.2 Fabrications of Interdigital Capacitors with Carbon Nanotube 38
2.3.3 Functionalization of Carbon Nanotube 39
2.3.4 Measurement and Results 40
2.4 Resonator-Based RF Biosensor 40
2.4.1 Resonator 40
2.4.2 Sample Preparation and Measurement 42
2.4.3 Functionalization of Resonator 42
2.5 Active System-Based RF Biosensor 45
2.5.1 Principle and Configuration of System 45
2.5.2 Fabrication of RF Active System with Resonator 46
2.5.2.1 Functionalization of Resonator 46
2.5.3 Measurement and Result 47
2.6 Conclusions 49
Abbreviations 51
References 52
3 Affinity Biosensing: Recent Advances in Surface Plasmon Resonance for Molecular Diagnostics 55
S. Scarano, S. Mariani, and M. Minunni
3.1 Introduction 56
3.2 Artists of the Biorecognition: New Natural and Synthetic Receptors as Sensing Elements 58
3.2.1 Antibodies and Their Mimetics 58
3.2.2 Nucleic Acids and Analogues 62
3.2.3 Living Cells 63
3.3 Recent Trends in Bioreceptors Immobilization 65
3.4 Trends for Improvements of Analytical Performances in Molecular Diagnostics 69
3.4.1 Coupling Nanotechnology to Biosensing 70
3.4.2 Microfluidics and Microsystems 76
3.4.3 Hyphenation 78
3.5 Conclusions 78
References 80
4 Electropolymerized Materials for Biosensors 89
Gennady Evtugyn, Anna Porfi reva and Tibor Hianik
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Electropolymerized Materials Used in Biosensor Assembly 93
4.2.1 General Characteristic of Electropolymerization Techniques 93
4.2.2 Instrumentation Tools for Monitoring of the Redox-Active Polymers in the Biosensor Assembly 97
4.2.3 Redox-Active Polymers Applied in Biosensor Assembly 99
4.3 Enzyme Sensors 107
4.3.1 PANI-Based Enzyme Sensors 107
4.3.2 PPY and Polythiophene-Based Enzyme Sensors 117
4.3.3 Enzyme Sensors Based on Other Redox-Active Polymers Obtained by Electropolymerization 127
4.3.4 Enzyme Sensors Based on Other Polymers Bearing Redox Groups 135
4.4 Immunosensors Based on Redox-Active Polymers 137
4.5 DNA Sensors Based on Redox-Active Polymers 149
4.5.1 PANI-based DNA Sensors and Aptasensors 149
4.5.2 PPY-Based DNA Sensors 153
4.5.3 Thiophene Derivatives in the DNA Sensors 157
4.5.4 DNA Sensors Based on Polyphenazines and Other Redox-Active Polymers 159
4.6 Conclusion 162
Acknowledgments 163
References 163
Part 2 Advanced Nanostructures in Biosensing 187
5 Graphene-Based Electrochemical Platform for Biosensor Applications 189
Yusoff Norazriena, Alagarsamy Pandikumar, Huang Nay Ming, and Lim Hong Ngee2,3
5.1 Introduction 189
5.2 Graphene 192
5.3 Synthetic Methods for Graphene 195
5.4 Properties of Graphene 197
5.5 Multi-functional Applications of Graphene 199
5.6 Electrochemical Sensor 200
Graphene as Promising Materials for Electrochemical Biosensors 201
5.6.1 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for Glucose Sensors 201
5.6.2 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for NADH Sensors 202
5.6.3 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for NO Sensors 204
5.6.4 Graphene-Based Modified Electrode for H2O 206
5.7 Conclusion and Future Outlooks 207
References 208
6 Fluorescent Carbon Dots for Bioimaging 215
Suresh Kumar Kailasa, Vaibhavkumar N. Mehta1, Nazim Hasan and Hui-Fen Wu
6.1 Introduction 215
6.2 CDs as Fluorescent Probes for Imaging of Biomolecules and Cells 216
6.3 Conclusions and Perspectives 224
References 224
7 Enzyme Sensors Based on Nanostructured Materials 229
Nada F. Atta, Shimaa M. Ali, and Ahmed Galal
7.1 Biosensors and Nanotechnology 229
7.2 Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 230
7.2.1 Glucose Biosensors 233
7.2.2 Cholesterol Biosensors 237
7.2.3 Tyrosinase Biosensors 240
7.2.4 Urease Biosensors 243
7.2.5 Acetylcholinesterase Biosensors 244
7.2.6 Horseradish Peroxidase Biosensors 246
7.2.7 DNA Biosensors 248
7.3 Biosensors Based on Magnetic Nanoparticles 252
7.4 Biosensors Based on Quantum Dots 260
7.5 Conclusion 267
References 268
8 Biosensor Based on Chitosan Nanocomposite 277
Baoqiang Li, Yinfeng Cheng, Feng Xu, Lei Wang, Daqing Wei, Dechang Jia, Yujie Feng, and Yu Zhou
8.1 Introduction 278
8.2 Chitosan and Chitosan Nanomaterials 278
8.2.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Chitosan 279
8.2.2 Biocompatibility of Chitosan 280
8.2.3 Chitosan Nanomaterials 281
8.2.3.1 Blending 281
8.2.3.2 In Situ Hybridization 282
8.2.3.3 Chemical Grafting 285
8.3 Application of Chitosan Nanocomposite in Biosensor 285
8.3.1 Biosensor Configurations and Bioreceptor Immobilization 285
8.3.2 Biosensor Based on Chitosan Nanocomposite 287
8.3.2.1 Biosensors Based on Carbon Nanomaterials?Chitosan Nanocomposite 287
8.3.2.2 Biosensors Based on Metal and Metal Oxide?Chitosan Nanocomposite 290
8.3.2.3 Biosensors Based on Quantum Dots Chitosan Nanocomposite 293
8.3.2.4 Biosensors Based on IonicLiquid Chitosan Nanocomposite 293
8.4 Emerging Biosensor and Future Perspectives 294
Acknowledgments 298
References 298
Part 3 Systematic Bioelectronic Strategies 309
9 Bilayer Lipid Membrane Constructs: A Strategic Technology Evaluation Approach 311
Christina G. Siontorou
9.1 The Lipid Bilayer Concept and the Membrane Platform 312
9.2 Strategic Technology Evaluation: The Approach 318
9.3 The Dimensions of the Membrane-Based Technology 319
9.4 Technology Dimension 1: Fabrication 322
9.4.1 Suspended Lipid Platforms 322
9.4.2 Supported Lipid Platforms 327
9.4.3 Micro- and Nano-Fabricated Lipid Platforms 331
9.5 Technology Dimension 2: Membrane Modelling 333
9.6 Technology Dimension 3: Artificial Chemoreception 336
9.7 Technology Evaluation 337
9.8 Concluding Remarks 339
Abbreviations 340
References 340
10 Carbon and Its Hybrid Composites as Advanced Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 355
S. T. Senthilkumar, K. Vijaya Sankar, J. S. Melo, A. Gedanken and R. Kalai Selvan
10.1 Introduction 356
10.1.1 Background 356
10.2 Principle of Supercapacitor 358
10.2.1 Basics of Supercapacitor 358
10.2.2 Charge Storage Mechanism of SC 360
10.2.2.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC) 360
10.2.2.2 Pseudocapacitors 361
10.2.2.3 Electrode Materials for Supercapacitors 364
10.3 Activated Carbon and Their Composites 366
10.4 Carbon Aerogels and Their Composite Materials 368
10.5 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) and Their Composite Materials 371
10.6 Two-Dimensional Graphene 374
10.6.1 Electrochemical Performance of Graphene 375
10.6.2 Graphene Composites 376
10.6.2.1 Binary Composites 376
10.6.2.2 Ternary Hybrid Electrode 378
10.6.3 Doping of Graphene with Heteroatom 380
10.7 Conclusion and Outlook 381
Acknowledgements 382
References 382
11 Recent Advances of Biosensors in Food Detection Including Genetically Modified Organisms in Food 395
T. Varzakas, Georgia-Paraskevi Nikoleli, and Dimitrios P. Nikolelis
11.1 Electrochemical Biosensors 396
11.2 DNA Biosensors for Detection of GMOs Nanotechnology 400
11.3 Aptamers 411
11.4 Voltammetric Biosensors 412
11.5 Amperometric Biosensors 413
11.6 Optical Biosensors 414
11.7 Magnetoelastic Biosensors 415
11.8 Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Biosensors for Odor Detection 415
11.9 Quorum Sensing and Toxoflavin Detection 416
11.10 Xanthine Biosensors 417
11.11 Conclusions and Future Prospects 418
Acknowledgments 419
References 419
12 Numerical Modeling and Calculation of Sensing Parameters of DNA Sensors 429
Hediyeh Karimi, Farzaneh Sabbagh, Rasoul Rahmani, and M. T. Ahamdi
12.1 Introduction to Graphene 430
12.1.1 Electronic Structure of Graphene 431
12.1.2 Graphene as a Sensing Element 431
12.1.3 DNA Molecules 432
12.1.4 DNA Hybridization 432
12.1.5 Graphene-Based Field Effect Transistors 434
12.1.6 DNA Sensor Structure 435
12.1.7 Sensing Mechanism 436
12.2 Numerical Modeling 437
12.2.1
12.2.2 Modeling of the Sensing Parameter (Conductance) Current Voltage (Id?Vg) Characteristics 437
Modeling 440
12.2.3 Proposed Alpha Model 441
12.2.4 Comparison of the Proposed NumericalModel with Experiment 444
References 447
13 Carbon Nanotubes and Cellulose Acetate Composite for Biomolecular Sensing 453
Padmaker Pandey, Anamika Pandey, O. P. Pandey and N. K. Shukla
13.1 Introduction 453
13.2 Background of the Work 456
13.3 Materials and Methodology 459
13.3.1 Preparation of Membranes 459
13.3.2 Immobilisation of Enzyme 460
13.3.3 Assay for Measurement of Enzymatic
Reaction 460
13.4 Characterisation of Membranes 460
13.4.1 Optical Microscope Characterisation 460
13.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscope Characterisation 462
13.5 pH Measurements Using Different Membranes 462
13.5.1 For Un-immobilised Membranes 462
13.5.2 For Immobilised Membranes 462
13.6 Conclusion 464
Reference 465
14 Review of the Green Synthesis of Metal/Graphene Composites for Energy Conversion, Sensor, Environmental, and Bioelectronic Applications 467
Shude Liu, K.S. Hui, and K.N. Hui
14.1 Introduction 468
14.2 Metal/Graphene Composites 468
14.3 Synthesis Routes of Graphene 469
14.3.1 CVD Synthesis of Graphene 469
14.3.2 Liquid-Phase Production of Graphene 473
14.3.3 Epitaxial Growth of Graphene 476
14.4 Green Synthesis Route of Metal/Graphene Composites 478
14.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Metal/Graphene Composites 479
14.4.2 Non-toxic Reducing Agent 482
14.4.3 In Situ Sonication Method 484
14.4.4 Photocatalytic Reduction Method 486
14.5 Green Application of Metal/Graphene and Doped Graphene Composites 487
14.5.1 Energy Storage and Conversion Device 487
14.5.2 Electrochemical Sensors 490
14.5.3 Wastewater Treatment 491
14.5.4 Bioelectronics 492
14.6 Conclusion and Future Perspective 496
Acknowledgments 497
References 497
