| Preface | p. ix |
| Introduction: intercrops and ecology | p. 1 |
| The limited intentions of this book | p. 4 |
| The nature of ecological theory | p. 5 |
| Some questions of terminology | p. 6 |
| Overview of the general theory | p. 9 |
| Future use of intercrops | p. 13 |
| Structure of the book | p. 13 |
| The measurement of intercrop performance | p. 15 |
| The bases for comparison | p. 15 |
| The problem of population density and planting design | p. 15 |
| The yield set | p. 18 |
| Criteria for intercrop advantage | p. 19 |
| The land equivalent ratio | p. 19 |
| Other criteria of success | p. 23 |
| Some recurrent statistical problems | p. 26 |
| The competitive production principle | p. 29 |
| The basic idea | p. 29 |
| Some interesting antecedents | p. 33 |
| Niche theory, effect-response and yield sets | p. 34 |
| Competitive production and environmental grain | p. 41 |
| Applying the principle in nature | p. 41 |
| Summary and conclusions | p. 44 |
| Facilitation | p. 46 |
| The basic idea | p. 46 |
| Effect-response and the yield set | p. 47 |
| Niche theory | p. 50 |
| Competition and facilitation together | p. 50 |
| The question of grain | p. 52 |
| The potential set | p. 52 |
| The environmental grain | p. 53 |
| More on the potential set | p. 56 |
| The potential set, adaptive function and environmental grain - the details | p. 58 |
| The range of systems and the potential set | p. 58 |
| The adaptive function | p. 59 |
| Maximizing yield on the potential set | p. 62 |
| The shape of the potential set | p. 64 |
| Mechanisms of the competitive production principle | p. 68 |
| Partitioning the light environment | p. 70 |
| Partitioning soil resources | p. 76 |
| The interaction of soil factors and light | p. 84 |
| The environments modified to produce facilitation | p. 86 |
| Nitrogen | p. 86 |
| Water | p. 89 |
| Non-nitrogen nutrients | p. 91 |
| Protection from pests | p. 93 |
| The disruptive crop hypothesis | p. 95 |
| The enemies hypothesis | p. 100 |
| Trap-cropping | p. 100 |
| The detection of facilitation | p. 103 |
| Special problems in intercrops involving perennials | p. 106 |
| Introduction | p. 106 |
| Young perennial plantation with an annual intercrop | p. 109 |
| The light environment in a mature plantation | p. 111 |
| Some qualitative features | p. 111 |
| Diffuse radiation | p. 116 |
| The shadow of a canopy | p. 118 |
| The shadow with a filtering canopy | p. 118 |
| Time in the shadow | p. 120 |
| Potential applications | p. 124 |
| Weeds and intercrops | p. 127 |
| Competitive interactions among three species | p. 129 |
| Weed control as indirect facilitation | p. 134 |
| Summary and conclusions | p. 138 |
| Appendix A | p. 139 |
| Appendix B | p. 140 |
| Variability and intercrops | p. 141 |
| Problems of measurement and evaluation | p. 142 |
| Variability, competition and facilitation | p. 144 |
| Risk and facilitation | p. 153 |
| A simple example | p. 154 |
| The adaptive function under risk minimization | p. 155 |
| The optimization problem | p. 157 |
| Appendix A | p. 161 |
| Planning intercrops - a phenomenological approach | p. 162 |
| Competition theory for even-aged stands | p. 163 |
| A computer-based linear methodology | p. 166 |
| The basic idea | p. 166 |
| Stabilizing the yields | p. 167 |
| Estimating parameters | p. 170 |
| An example | p. 171 |
| Planning intercrops - a mechanistic approach | p. 176 |
| Introduction | p. 176 |
| Mechanisms of reduced competition | p. 177 |
| Partitioning the light environment | p. 177 |
| Partitioning the resource environment | p. 179 |
| Mechanisms of facilitation | p. 179 |
| Pest and natural enemies dynamics | p. 180 |
| Trap-crops | p. 182 |
| Planning for weed control | p. 185 |
| Summary and conclusions | p. 188 |
| Critical research directions for the future | p. 189 |
| Dynamic plant growth and interaction models | p. 189 |
| The question of mechanization | p. 199 |
| The question of genetic improvement | p. 202 |
| References | p. 204 |
| Author index | p. 227 |
| Subject index | p. 231 |
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