Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere

Volume 82

By: Gordon G. Shepherd

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Hardcover | 15 July 2002

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304 Pages

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Optical instruments are routinely employed to obtain a wealth of information about the atmosphere, including its composition, temperature, and winds. A bewildering variety of optical instruments have been proposed over the years, making it difficult to decide which instrument should be chosen to make a specific measurement. Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere traces the historical development of both spectral and imaging methods and places them in a unified framework relevant to observations of the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The underlying concepts of various measurement methodologies are presented and paired with appropriate applications. A selection of specific spectral imaging instruments, appropriate to illustrate each conceptual type, is described in detail.

Shepherd's work provides both scientists and engineers with an in-depth understanding of the fundamental concepts they need to know in order to plan a program of atmospheric measurements. Expected future methods and developments are also presented. Problems designed to test and enhance the reader's understanding of the material are included in each chapter.

Industry Reviews

"...an essential read for anyone interested in high resolution spectral remote sensing... very interesting and stimulating..." -Paul R. Hays "...Our knowledge and monitoring capabilities about the state of the atmosphere would be much less without the wealth of remotely sensed data available today. This book, written by an experienced scientist who designed several spectral imagers that became operational on satellites, provides scientists and engineers with an in-depth understanding of the fundamental concepts of spectral imaging. ...I consider the book as a valuable reference for advanced users of data from spectral imagers." -Leopold Haimberger, Vienna

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Preface	p. xiii
Observing Atmospheric Radiation	p. 1
Atmospheric Radiation	p. 1
Measuring Atmospheric Radiation	p. 8
The Integrated Emission Rate	p. 8
Visible Atmospheric Radiation	p. 10
Thermal Atmospheric Radiation	p. 10
Ultraviolet Atmospheric Radiation	p. 11
The Scope of Spectral Imaging	p. 12
One-Dimensional (Vertical) Spatial Information	p. 13
Two-Dimensional (Horizontal-Vertical) Information	p. 16
Three-Dimensional Information	p. 18
Spectral Information	p. 20
Temporal Information	p. 26
Preview	p. 28
Problems	p. 29
Spectral Concepts	p. 30
Introduction	p. 30
The Spectral Concept	p. 31
Formal Statement of the Fourier Transform	p. 33
Fundamental Properties of the Fourier Integral	p. 35
Doing a Fourier Integral Without Integration	p. 36
Building Up a Set of Fourier Transforms	p. 37
Convolutions and Correlations	p. 38
The Dirac Delta Function and the Dirac Comb	p. 39
Dirac Delta Function	p. 39
The Dirac Comb	p. 40
The Discrete Fourier Transform	p. 41
The Autocorrelation Function and Power Spectral Density	p. 44
Optical Devices as Linear Dynamical Systems	p. 45
The Diffraction Grating as a Linear Dynamical System	p. 47
The Fabry-Perot Etalon as a Linear Dynamical System	p. 51
Problems	p. 52
Instrument Responsivity and Superiority	p. 54
Responsivity of an Elementary Photometer	p. 54
The Measurement of Irradiance	p. 57
Responsivity for Line and Continuum Sources	p. 57
Photometer Calibration	p. 59
Generalized Definition of Responsivity	p. 61
Jacquinot's Definition of Etendue	p. 62
Conservation of Etendue	p. 62
Comparison of Astronomical and Atmospheric Sources	p. 63
Resolving Power and the Superiority of Spectral Imagers	p. 63
The Photometer Becomes a Spectrometer	p. 63
Dispersion and Resolving Power for a Diffraction Grating Spectrometer	p. 64
Superiority of the Diffraction Grating Spectrometer	p. 65
Comparison of Superiority for the Diffraction Grating and Fabry-Perot Spectrometers	p. 66
Dispersion, Classification and Nomenclature	p. 66
Problems	p. 68
Imaging Concepts	p. 70
Elementary Detectors and Noise	p. 70
Scanning Satellite Imager	p. 72
Overview	p. 72
The ISIS-II Satellite Imagers	p. 73
Dynamics Explorer-1 Imager	p. 74
Weather Satellite Imagers	p. 76
Introduction to Array Detectors	p. 80
The Charge Coupled Device (CCD) Detector	p. 81
Introduction to Semiconductors	p. 81
Method of Operation	p. 82
CCD Readout	p. 84
CCD Characteristics	p. 86
Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 87
Spectral Response and Materials	p. 87
Considerations Specific to Infrared Array Detectors	p. 88
Background Radiation	p. 88
Infrared Detector Readout	p. 89
Other Types of Array Detectors	p. 89
Photodiode Arrays	p. 89
Charge Injection Devices	p. 90
Intensifiers	p. 90
Position Sensitive Arrays	p. 91
Early Array Detector Imagers	p. 92
Elementary Imagers	p. 92
Spectral Imagers	p. 93
The KYOKKO Auroral Imager	p. 95
CCD Satellite Imagers	p. 95
The Viking Ultra Violet Imager (UVI)	p. 95
The Polar VIS Imager and the IMAGE Satellite	p. 98
Summary	p. 99
Problems	p. 100
The Fabry-Perot Spectrometer	p. 102
Introduction	p. 102
The Idealized Etalon	p. 103
The Real Etalon	p. 107
Elementary Fabry-Perot Spectrometer Configuration	p. 108
The Spherical Fabry-Perot Spectrometer	p. 109
Scanning Methods for Fabry-Perot Spectrometers	p. 112
The Application of Fabry-Perot Spectrometers	p. 114
Multiple Ring Aperture Instruments	p. 114
Axicon System	p. 116
Low Light Level Applications	p. 116
Tandem Fabry-Perot Spectrometers	p. 117
Stabilized Fabry-Perot Spectrometers	p. 119
Applications of the Fabry-Perot Imager	p. 121
Introduction	p. 121
PRESTO - A Programmable Etalon Spectrometer for Twilight Observations	p. 121
MORTI and SATI: Hybrid Spatial and Spectral Instruments	p. 122
Imaging Low Light Level Application	p. 124
Imaging Winds with an FPS Imager	p. 124
CLIO (Circle to Line Interferometer Optical System)	p. 126
Problems	p. 127
The Michelson Interferometer	p. 129
Historical Background	p. 129
Basic Concept	p. 130
Spectral Resolution	p. 133
Field of View	p. 134
The Real Michelson Interferometer	p. 135
Sampling the Interferogram	p. 135
Superiority of the Michelson Interferometer	p. 136
Scanning Methods for the Ordinary Michelson Interferometer	p. 137
Overview	p. 137
Cube Corner Reflectors	p. 138
Cat's Eye Retro-Reflector	p. 138
The Dynamic Alignment System	p. 139
Some Atmospheric Applications of the Michelson Interferometer	p. 139
Field Widening	p. 142
Problems	p. 149
Multiplexers and Modulators	p. 151
Spectral Operating Modes	p. 151
Multiplexers	p. 152
Introduction	p. 152
The Hadamard Spectrometer	p. 152
Grating Spectrometers with Array Detectors	p. 154
Modulators	p. 154
The SISAM	p. 154
The Birefringent Photometer	p. 156
The Grille Spectrometer	p. 158
The Correlation Spectrometer	p. 160
The Pressure Modulator Radiometer (PMR)	p. 160
Instruments for Dayglow Observations	p. 164
Problems	p. 166
Dopper Michelson Interferometry	p. 168
The Measurement of Doppler Temperature	p. 168
The Measurement of Doppler Wind	p. 172
Phase Stepping Interferometry	p. 173
The Wide-Angle Michelson Interferometer	p. 175
Cube Corner Doppler Michelson Interferometer	p. 176
Achromatizing a Field-Widened Michelson Interferometer	p. 177
Thermally Stabilizing a Solid Michelson Interferometer	p. 178
A Fully Compensated Solid Doppler Michelson Interferometer	p. 179
Defocusing a Wide-Angle Michelson Interferometer	p. 180
Polarizing Doppler Michelson Interferometers	p. 181
Introduction	p. 181
PAMI Polarization States	p. 182
The SOHO SOI (Solar Oscillations Investigation) and GONG Instruments	p. 183
The Phase Quadrature Michelson Interferometer	p. 185
Concept	p. 185
Phase-Shifting with Optical Thin Film Multilayers	p. 185
Optimized Reflective Wide-Angle Phase-Stepping MI	p. 187
Problems	p. 189
Operational Atmospheric Spectral Imagers	p. 191
Introduction	p. 191
The Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII)	p. 191
Fundamental Spaceflight Considerations	p. 191
WINDII Optical System	p. 194
The Michelson Interferometer	p. 195
Interference Filters	p. 196
Detector	p. 197
The WINDII Baffle	p. 197
Calibration	p. 199
Wind Measurement Procedure	p. 200
Examples of Results Obtained	p. 201
ERWIN: An E-Region Wind Interferometer	p. 207
Introduction	p. 207
Instrument Description	p. 207
The Michelson Interferometer	p. 208
Examples of Measurements	p. 209
MICADO--Michelson Interferometer for Coordinated Auroral Doppler Observations	p. 211
The High-Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI)	p. 213
Introduction	p. 213
Input Optics	p. 213
The Etalons	p. 215
The Detector	p. 216
HRDI Results	p. 216
Comparison of HRDI and WINDII	p. 217
CLAES: The Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer on UARS	p. 220
Introduction	p. 220
Instrument Design	p. 221
Sample CLAES results	p. 223
MOPITT--Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere	p. 223
Problems	p. 227
Future Atmospheric Spectral Imagers	p. 230
The TIMED Doppler Imager (TIDI)	p. 230
TIDI Overview	p. 230
Instrument Description	p. 230
TIDI Data Coverage	p. 233
TIDI Science Measurement Summary	p. 233
The Mesospheric Imaging Michelson Interferometer (MIMI)	p. 235
Introduction	p. 235
General Description of the Instrument	p. 235
Michelson Interferometer	p. 237
Filter Selection	p. 239
Appearance of the O[subscript 2] Lines in the Field of View	p. 239
MIMI Status	p. 239
The Stratospheric Wind Interferometer for Transport Studies (SWIFT)	p. 240
Introduction and Motivation	p. 240
Concept	p. 241
Instrument Description	p. 244
The Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE)	p. 248
The Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS)	p. 251
Problems	p. 254
Grating Spectrometers as Spectral Imagers	p. 255
Introduction	p. 255
Fundamental Aspects of the Diffraction Grating Spectrometer	p. 257
Selected Airglow Missions Accomplished	p. 258
Mariner 10 Ultraviolet Airglow Experiment	p. 258
The Voyager Mission Ultraviolet Experiment	p. 260
Arizona Imager Spectrograph (AIS)	p. 260
Single-Element Imaging Spectrograph (SEIS)	p. 262
Ground-Based Instruments	p. 264
Selected Atmospheric Missions Accomplished	p. 266
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS)	p. 266
Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE)	p. 267
Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imaging System (OSIRIS)	p. 267
CRyogenic Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes for the Atmosphere (CRISTA)	p. 269
Future Atmospheric Missions using Grating Spectrographs	p. 271
GOMOS and SCIAMACHY on Envisat	p. 271
Ozone Dynamics Ultraviolet Spectrometer (ODUS)	p. 272
Measurements of Aerosol Extinction in the Stratosphere and Troposphere Retrieved by Occultation (MAESTRO)	p. 273
Spatial Heterodyne Spectroscopy (SHS)	p. 274
Problems	p. 277
Postscript	p. 279
References	p. 281
List of Symbols	p. 297
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations	p. 300
Author Index	p. 305
Subject Index	p. 310
Table of Contents provided by Syndetics. All Rights Reserved.

Spectral Imaging of the Atmosphere

Volume 82

At a Glance

Hardcover

Industry Reviews

Shipping

How to return your order

Defective items

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