Principles of Rock Deformation

1. Introduction.- 2. Strain and Stress.- 2.1. Strain.- 2.1.1. Definitions.- 2.1.2. Finite strain ellipsoid.- 2.1.3. States of strain.- 2.2. Elements of Rheology.- 2.2.1. Experimental deformation.- 2.2.2. Elastic, plastic and viscous deformation.- 2.2.3. Percolation thresholds: the viscous-plastic transition.- 2.3. Stress.- 2.3.1. Stress ellipsoid.- 2.3.2. The Mohr diagram.- 2.4. Progressive Strain.- 2.5. Stress-Strain Relations.- For Further Reading.- 3. Theory of Discontinuous Deformation.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Fracture Modes and Relationship to Stress.- 3.2.1. Experimental deformation.- 3.2.2. The Mohr envelope and Coulomb's criterion.- 3.2.3. Fluid partial pressure and effective pressure.- 3.2.4. Fracturing assisted by fluid pressure.- 3.2.5. Hydraulic fracturing.- 3.3. The Brittle-Ductile Transition.- 3.3.1. The formation of microfractures.- 3.3.2. Role of the fluids-stress corrosion.- 3.3.3. Dilatancy.- For Further Reading.- 4. Mechanisms of Continuous Deformation.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Plastic Deformation in the Solid State.- 4.2.1. Flow units and mechanisms of deformation.- 4.2.2. Crystal defects.- 4.2.3. Mechanisms and processes of plastic deformation.- 4.3. Fluid Assisted Deformation.- 4.3.1. Pressure-solution.- 4.3.2. Passive rotation.- 4.3.3. Grain boundary sliding and liquefaction.- For Further Reading.- 5. Discontinuous Deformation: Structures, Interpretations.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Joints.- 5.3. Tension Fractures.- 5.4. Stylolitic Joints.- 5.5. Faults.- 5.5.1. Geometrical analysis of faults and fault systems.- 5.5.2. Internal structures of faults.- 5.5.3. Seismic and aseismic faults.- 5.5.4. Microstructural analysis of displacement.- 5.5.5. Dynamic analysis.- 5.5.6. Complex systems-fault propagation.- For Further Reading.- 6. Structures Caused by Homogeneous Deformation.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Planar Structures.- 6.2.1. Slaty cleavage and foliation.- 6.2.2. Crenulation cleavage.- 6.2.3. Fracture cleavage.- 6.2.4. Tectonic layering.- 6.2.5. Cleavage, foliation and strain ellipsoid.- 6.2.6. Cleavage, foliation and folds.- 6.3. Lineations.- 6.3.1. Mineral lineations.- 6.3.2. Aggregate lineations.- 6.3.3. Intersection lineations.- 6.3.4. Corrugation lineations.- 6.3.5. Lineations and the strain ellipsoid.- 6.3.6. Lineations and folds.- For Further Reading.- 7. Interpretation of Continuous Homogeneous Deformation Structures.- 7.1. Introduction.- 7.2. Mechanisms Responsible for the Development of Structures.- 7.2.1. Deposition and flow in a fluid.- 7.2.2. Plastic deformation.- 7.2.3. Deformation by pressure-solution.- 7.3. Interpretation of Structure Resulting from Viscous Flow.- 7.4.1. Relation between cleavage-lineation and principal stresses.- 7.4.2. Origin of crenulation cleavage.- 7.4.3. Origin of fracture cleavage.- 7.5. Interpretation of Intracrystalline Plastic Deformation Structures.- 7.5.1. Development of preferred orientations.- 7.5.2. Heterogeneous deformation of crystals.- 7.5.3. Coaxial and non-coaxial deformation.- 7.5.4. Relationships between stresses and preferred orientations.- For Further Reading.- 8. Continuous Heterogeneous Deformation: Typical Structures.- 8.1. Introduction.- 8.2. Microstructures.- 8.2.1. Crystallization in pressure fringes and pressure shadows.- 8.2.2. Minerals with snowball and sigmoidal inclusions.- 8.2.3. Mineral growth in tension fractures.- 8.3. Shear Zone.- 8.3.1. Geometric and kinematic analysis.- 8.3.2. Microstructural analysis.- 8.4. Stretch Structures; Boudinage.- For Further Reading.- 9. Folds.- 9.1. Introduction.- 9.2. Geometrical Analysis of Folds - The Case of an Isolated Surface.- 9.2.1. Morphology of folds.- 9.2.2. Orientation of folds.- 9.2.3. Systems of folds.- 9.3. Folding of an Isolated Bed.- 9.3.1. Parallel folds.- 9.3.2. Similar folds.- 9.4. Folding of a Stratified Sequence.- 9.5. Relationship of Folds to the Strain Axes.- 9.5.1. Relationship between cleavage or foliation and the axial plane.- 9.5.2. Relationships between lineations and fold axes.- 9.6. Superposed Folds.- 9.6.1. Geometrical analysis.- 9.6.2. Continuum in deformation and polyphase deformations.- For Further Reading.- Appendix I. Tensorial Analysis of Strain and Stress.- I.1. Strain.- I.1.1. Tensorial analysis.- I.1.2. Typical strain regimes.- I.2. Stress.- I.2.1. Tensorial analysis.- I.2.2. Typical stress regimes.- I.3. Elastic Deformation.- Appendix II. Measurement of Finite Strain.- II. 1. Introduction.- II.2. Definitions.- II.2.1. Strain of a linear marker.- II.2.2. Strain in simple shear.- II.2.3. Strain ellipsoid.- II.2.4. Strain ellipse.- II.2.5. Mohr circle of strain.- II.3. Determination of the Strain Ellipse.- II.3.1. Measurement of elongation.- II.3.2. Measurement of shear strain.- II.3.3. Deformed elliptical objects.- II.3.4. Variations in the distribution of point markers.- II.4. Determination of the Strain Ellipsoid.- II.4.1. Measurement of ellipses.- II.4.2. Reorientation of plano-linear markers.- II.4.3. Deformation of mineral veins.- II.5. Strain in Simple Shear.- II.5.1. Shear plane/foliation obliquity.- II.5.2. Rotation of planar markers.- II.5.3. Rotation of microstructural markers.- Appendix III. Cyclospherical Projections and Figures.- III.1. Introduction.- III.2. Definitions.- III.3. Representation of Straight Lines and Planes.- III.4. Density Diagrams.- III.5. Analysis of Density Diagrams.- For Further Reading.