List of Figures xv
About the Author xxv
Preface xxvi
1 Introduction: Networking in a Nutshell 1
1.1 Purpose 1
1.2 Networking Terms and Network Elements 2
1.3 Network Transport Processes 6
1.4 An Illustrative Transport Process: Sending Packages Across a Shipping Network 9
1.5 A Layered Communications Networking Architecture 14
1.6 Communications Network Architecture: User, Control, and Management Planes 27
1.6.1 Network Architectural Planes 27
1.6.2 The Data (User) Plane 29
1.6.3 The Control Plane 30
1.6.4 The Management Plane 33
1.7 Illustrative Network Systems 34
1.7.1 Highway Transportation 34
1.7.2 Inter-regional Road System 35
1.7.3 Train Transportation Network 35
1.7.4 Enterprise Computer Communications Network 35
1.7.5 Packet-Switching Network and the Internet 36
1.7.6 Cellular Wireless Networks 38
1.7.7 WiFi: Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) 40
1.7.8 Satellite Communications Networks 40
1.7.9 Autonomous Vehicular Networks 43
1.7.10 Sensor Networks and Internet of Things (IoT) 43
Problems 44
2 Information Sources, Communications Signals, and Multimedia Flows 47
2.1 End Users 47
2.2 Message Flows 48
2.3 Service Classes 51
2.4 Analog and Digital Signals 53
2.4.1 Analog and Digital Sources 53
2.4.2 Analog Signals 54
2.4.3 Digital Signals 54
2.4.4 Discretization: Analog-to-Digital Signal Conversion 55
2.5 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth 56
2.5.1 Time Domain and Frequency Domain 56
2.5.2 Frequency Spectrum of Periodic Signals 58
2.5.3 Frequency Spectrum of Nonperiodic Signals 59
2.5.4 Nyquist Sampling Rate 61
2.6 Audio Streaming 62
2.6.1 Audio Encoding and Streaming Across a Communications Circuit 62
2.6.1.1 Audio Encoding 62
2.6.1.2 Replay and Reconstruction of a Transported Stream 64
2.6.1.3 Transport of a Stream Across a Circuit-Switched Communications Network 66
2.6.2 Audio Streaming across a Packet-Switching Communications Network: Voice Over IP (VoIP) 68
2.6.2.1 Voice Over IP (VoIP) 68
2.6.2.2 The VoIP Streaming Process and the Realtime Transport Protocol (RTP) 70
2.6.2.3 Other CODECs and VOCODERs 73
2.6.2.4 Quality Metrics 75
2.7 Video Flows and Streams 77
2.7.1 Conversion of Light Waves to Electrical Signals 77
2.7.2 Digital Still Images 78
2.7.3 Full Motion Video 81
2.7.4 Video Compression 81
2.7.5 Transporting IP Video Streams over Communications Networks 83
2.7.6 Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP (DASH) 86
2.7.7 Performance Measures 87
2.8 Data Flows 88
Problems 90
3 Transmissions over Communications Channels 93
3.1 Communications Media 93
3.2 Wireline Communications Media 94
3.3 Wireless Communications Media 95
3.4 Message Transmission Over a Communications Channel 97
3.5 Noisy Communications Channels 98
3.6 Illustrative Calculation of Signal-to-Noise-plus-Interference Ratio (SINR) 102
3.7 Channel Capacity 104
3.8 Modulation/Coding Schemes (MCSs) 107
3.8.1 The Modulation Concept 107
3.8.2 Analog Modulation Techniques 108
3.8.3 Digital Modulation Techniques 110
3.8.4 Illustrative Digital Modulation/Coding Schemes 113
3.8.4.1 Modulation/Coding Schemes Used by a Wi-Fi Version 113
3.8.4.2 MCS Configurations for an LTE Cellular Wireless Radio Access Network 115
Problems 117
4 Traffic Processes 119
4.1 A Multilevel Traffic Model 119
4.2 Message Traffic Processes 122
4.3 Modeling a Traffic Flow as a Stochastic Point Process 123
4.4 Renewal Point Processes and the Poisson Process 125
4.5 Discrete-Time Renewal Point Processes and the Geometric Point Process 129
4.6 Traffic Rates and Service Demand Loads 131
4.6.1 Client–Server Traffic Association 131
4.6.2 Call Level Traffic Rates 132
4.6.3 Burst Level Traffic Rates 134
4.6.4 Message Level Traffic Rates 134
4.7 Traffic Matrix: Who Communicates with Whom 136
Problems 139
5 Performance Metrics 143
5.1 Quality of Service (QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE) Metrics 143
5.2 Quality of Service (QoS) Metrics for Communications Networking 144
5.2.1 Throughput Metrics 144
5.2.2 Message Delay Metrics 148
5.2.3 Error Rate Metrics 150
5.2.4 Availability and Reliability Metrics 151
5.2.5 Cyber Security 153
5.2.6 Illustration: QoS Metrics for a Cellular Wireless Network 155
5.3 Quality of Experience (QoE) 157
Problems 159
6 Multiplexing: Local Resource Sharing and Scheduling 161
6.1 Sharing Resources Through Multiplexing 162
6.2 Fixed Multiplexing Methods 164
6.2.1 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) 166
6.2.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) 169
6.2.3 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) 170
6.2.4 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) 170
6.2.5 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) 171
6.3 Statistical Multiplexing Methods 171
6.4 Scheduling Algorithms and Protocols 173
6.5 Statistical Multiplexing Over One-to-Many Media 183
Problems 186
7 Queueing Systems 189
7.1 A Basic Queueing System Model 189
7.2 Queueing Processes and Performance Metrics 192
7.3 Queueing Systems: Properties 196
7.3.1 Busy Cycle Properties 196
7.3.2 Little’s Formula 197
7.4 Markovian Queueing Systems 199
7.5 Performance Behavior of Markovian Queueing Systems 201
7.5.1 M?M?1: A Single Service-Channel Queueing System 201
7.5.2 M?M?1?N: A Finite Capacity Single Server Queueing System 207
7.5.3 A Multi-server Queueing System 208
7.6 A Queueing System with General Service Times 213
7.7 Priority Queueing 218
7.8 Queueing Networks 222
7.9 Simulation of Communications Networks 227
7.9.1 Monte Carlo Simulations of Communications Networks 227
7.9.2 Illustrative Discrete-Event Monte Carlo Simulation of a Queueing System 230
Problems 235
8 Multiple Access: Sharing from Afar 241
8.1 Multiple Access: Sharing from Afar 241
8.2 Fixed Multiple Access Schemes 244
8.2.1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 244
8.2.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 246
8.2.3 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) 249
8.2.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 253
8.3 Demand-Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA) Schemes 258
8.3.1 Demand- Assigned Schemes 258
8.3.2 Demand-Assigned Reservation Schemes 258
8.3.3 Polling Schemes 262
8.3.3.1 Polling Methods and Procedures 262
8.3.3.2 Performance Behavior of Polling Systems 269
8.4 Random Access: Try and Try Again 272
8.4.1 Uncoordinated Transmissions Using Random Access 272
8.4.2 Pure Random Access: The ALOHA Protocol 275
8.4.3 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): A Listen Before Talk Protocol 284
8.4.4 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) and Ethernet Local Area Network (LAN) 291
8.4.5 The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Protocol and the Wi-Fi Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) 297
8.4.5.1 WLAN Layout and Shared Wireless Medium Resources 297
8.4.5.2 Frame Types 299
8.4.5.3 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): The Basic CSMA/CA Medium Access Control Scheme 300
8.4.5.4 Point Coordination Function (PCF): A Polling-Based Contention-less Access Scheme 302
8.4.5.5 Alleviating the Hidden Terminal Problem: An Optional RTS/CTS Scheme 302
8.4.5.6 Hybrid Coordination Function (HCF): Providing QoS to Designated Traffic Categories (tc) 304
Problems 306
9 Switching, Relaying, and Local Networking 309
9.1 Switching 309
9.2 Extending the Coverage Span: Repeaters and Relays 317
9.3 Local Networking Across a Switching Fabric: Bridging of MAC Frames 321
9.3.1 Local Internetting Using Bridges and Layer 2 Switches 321
9.3.2 Building a Frame Forwarding Table via a Flooding Protocol 324
9.3.3 Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) Methods for Constructing a Forwarding Table 325
9.3.4 Multipath Networking Across Local Switch Fabrics: Shortest Path Bridging (spb) 330
9.3.4.1 Shortest Path Bridging (SPB) 330
9.3.4.2 Illustrative SPB Network 334
9.3.4.3 The Control Plane: Link State Dissemination and SPT Constructions 334
9.3.4.4 Multitier Overlay: Data Transport Across Multiple Equal-Cost Paths 337
9.3.4.5 The Forwarding Data Base (FDB) 339
Problems 341
10 Circuit Switching 345
10.1 Circuit Switching: The Method 345
10.2 The Circuit Switching Network System Architecture 346
10.3 The Switching Fabric 351
10.4 The Signaling System 354
10.5 Performance Characteristics of a Circuit Switching Network 356
10.6 Cross-Connect Switching and Wavelength Switched Optical Networks 359
Problems 368
11 Connection-Oriented Packet Switching 371
11.1 Connection-Oriented Packet Switching: The Method 372
11.2 The Virtual Circuit Switching and Networking Processes 373
11.3 Technologies That Use a Connection-Oriented Packet-Switching Method 376
11.4 Performance Characteristics of a Virtual Circuit Switching Network 379
Problems 384
12 Datagram Networking: Connectionless Packet Switching 387
12.1 Connectionless Packet Switching: The Method 388
12.2 Packet Flows and the Packet Router 390
12.3 Performance Characteristics 392
Problems 395
13 Error Control: Please Send It Again 397
13.1 Error Control Methods 397
13.2 Error Control Using Forward Error Correction (FEC) 400
13.3 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) 404
13.3.1 Error Detection Coding 404
13.3.2 The ARQ Process 406
13.3.3 Stop-and-Wait ARQ 407
13.3.4 Go-Back-N ARQ: A Sliding Window Protocol 415
13.3.5 Selective-Repeat ARQ: Resend Only Uncorrectable Received Blocks 420
13.4 Hybrid ARQ (HARQ) Error Control 423
Problems 429
14 Flow and Congestion Control: Avoiding Overuse of User and Network Resources 431
14.1 Flow and Congestion Controls: Objectives and Configurations 431
14.2 Feedback-Based Closed-Loop Flow Control 434
14.3 Open-Loop Input-Rate Flow and Congestion Controls 436
14.4 Congestion Control: Relieving Bottlenecks 444
14.4.1 Reactive Congestion Control 444
14.4.2 Proactive Congestion Control 448
Problems 451
15 Routing: Quo Vadis? 453
15.1 Routing: Selecting a Preferred Path 453
15.2 Route Metrics 455
15.3 Routing Domains and Autonomous Systems 457
15.4 Route Selection Methods 461
15.5 Shortest Path Tree (SPT): Mapping the Best Path to Each Node 464
15.6 Distance Vector Routing: Consult Your Neighbors 465
15.7 Link-State Routing: Obtain the Full Domain Graph 470
Problems 473
16 The Internet 475
16.1 The Internet Networking Architecture 476
16.2 HTTP: Facilitating Client–Server Interaction Over the Internet 482
16.3 Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses 485
16.3.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) Addresses 485
16.3.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Addresses 491
16.4 Internet Protocol (IP) Packets 492
16.4.1 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) Packets 492
16.4.2 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Packets 494
16.5 Transport Layer Protocols 496
16.5.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 496
16.5.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 501
16.5.3 QUIC: A Fast and Secure Transport Protocol 503
16.6 Routing Over the Internet 508
16.6.1 Autonomous Systems as Routing Domains 508
16.6.2 Intra-domain Routing: OSPF 509
16.6.3 Inter-domain Routing: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) 511
Problems 518
17 Local and Personal Area Wireless Networks 521
17.1 Illustrative Personal Area and Local Area Wireless Networks 522
17.2 WiFi: A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) 523
17.3 Personal Area Networks (PANs) for Short-Range Wireless Communications 528
17.3.1 Personal Area networks (PANs) 528
17.3.2 Short-Range Wireless Communications Using Bluetooth 528
17.3.3 Short-Range Low Data Rate Wireless Communications Using Zigbee 533
Problems 539
18 Mobile Cellular Wireless Networks 541
18.1 Configurations of Mobile Wireless Networks 541
18.2 Architectural Elements of a Cellular Wireless Network 544
18.2.1 The Cellular Coverage 544
18.2.2 Cellular Networking Generations 546
18.2.3 Key Components of a Cellular Network Architecture 549
18.3 Cellular Network Communications: The Process 551
18.4 The 4G-LTE Protocol Architecture 554
18.4.1 Allocation of Wireless Access Resources 558
18.5 Next-Generation 5G, 6G, and Millimeter-Wave Cellular Networks 560
Problems 562
19 Mobile Ad Hoc Wireless Networks 567
19.1 The Mobile Ad Hoc Wireless Networking Concept 567
19.2 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing 569
19.3 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) 573
19.4 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR): A Proactive Routing Algorithm 576
19.5 Mobile Backbone Networks (MBNs): Hierarchical Routing for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 582
Problems 592
20 Next-Generation Networks: Enhancing Flexibility, Performance, and Scalability 595
20.1 Network Virtualization 595
20.2 Software-Defined Networking (SDN) 597
20.3 Network Functions Virtualization (NFV) 599
20.4 Network Slicing 601
20.5 Edge Computing, Open Interfaces, Technology Convergence, Autonomous Operations 602
Problems 604
21 Communications and Traffic Management for the Autonomous Highway 607
21.1 Data Communications Services for Vehicular Wireless Networks 608
21.2 Configurations of Vehicular Data Communication Networks 610
21.3 Vehicular Wireless Networking Methods 613
21.3.1 VANET-Based Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Networking Protocols 613
21.3.2 Selection of Relay Nodes 616
21.3.3 Flow and Congestion Controls 625
21.3.4 Vehicular Backbone Networks (VBNs): Hierarchical Networking Using Cluster Formations 628
21.3.5 Vehicular Backbone Networks (VBNs): Backbone Network Synthesis 633
21.3.6 Infrastructure-Aided Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Networking 638
21.3.7 Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (CV2X) Networking 641
21.3.8 Networking Automated and Autonomous Vehicles 648
21.3.9 Traffic Management of Autonomous Highway Systems 650
21.3.9.1 Achieving the Highest Vehicle Flow Rate 650
21.3.9.2 Traffic Management Under Queueing and Transit Delay Limits 656
Problems 665
22 Networking Security 671
22.1 Network Security Architecture and Cybersecurity Frameworks 671
22.2 Message Confidentiality: Symmetric Encryption 675
22.3 Public Key Encryption (PKE) 677
22.4 Digital Signature 679
22.5 Secure Exchange of Cryptographic Keys 680
22.6 Secure Client–Server Message Transport Over the Network 682
Problems 683
References 685
Index 689
