Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology

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By: Hari Singh Nalwa

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Hardcover | 31 August 2001

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This concise edition of Hari Singh Nalwa's Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology fills the needs of scientists and students working in chemistry, physics, materials science, electrical engineering, polymer science, surface science, spectroscopy, and biotechnology. This version of the Handbook contains 16 chapters particularly focused on synthesis and fabrication as well as the electrical and optical properties of nanoscale materials.

The 5-volume reference Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology, published in October 1999, created widespread interest in researchers in the field of nanotechnology and many of our colleagues expressed interest in a shorter version of our major reference work. The Handbook will serve the objectives of providing state-of-the-art information on many aspects of nanostructured materials and emerging nanotechnology.

Presenting the eagerly anticipated concise edition of the classic work of reference in nanostructured materials and nanotechnology
Provides comprehensive coverage of the dominant technology of the 21st century
Written by a truly international list of contributors

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Non-Fiction Engineering & Technology Technology in General Nanotechnology Mechanical Engineering & Materials Materials Science Engineering in General Electronics & Communications Engineering Electronics Engineering Electronic Devices & Materials Semi-Conductors & Super-Conductors

About the Editor	p. xix
List of Contributors	p. xxi
Chemical Synthesis of Nanostructured Metals, Metal Alloys, and Semiconductors
Introduction	p. 1
Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials	p. 2
Physical Methods	p. 3
Chemical Methods	p. 4
Synthesis of Metals, Intermetallics, and Semiconductors	p. 5
Chemical Synthesis of Metals	p. 5
Synthesis of Intermetallics	p. 22
Synthesis of Semiconductors	p. 34
Conclusions	p. 52
References	p. 52
Nanocomposites Prepared by Sol-Gel Methods: Synthesis and Characterization
Introduction	p. 57
Nanocomposites Containing Elemental Nanoparticulates	p. 58
Group VI Metal Nanocomposites	p. 59
Group VIII Metal Nanocomposites	p. 59
Group IX Metal Nanocomposites	p. 61
Group X Metal Nanocomposites	p. 61
Group XI Metal Nanocomposites	p. 63
Metal Alloy Nanocomposites	p. 66
Group XIV Nanocomposites	p. 67
Nanocomposites Containing Nanoparticulate Substances	p. 68
Metal Carbide Nanocomposites	p. 68
Metal Pnictide Nanocomposites	p. 69
Metal Oxide Nanocomposites	p. 70
Metal Chalcogenide (S, Se, or Te) Nanocomposites	p. 73
Metal Halide Nanocomposites	p. 80
Summary	p. 82
Acknowledgments	p. 82
References	p. 82
Low-Temperature Compaction of Nanosize Powders
Introduction	p. 93
Low-Temperature-High-Pressure Powder Compaction	p. 96
Diamond Anvil Pressure Cell	p. 96
High-Pressure Compaction with the Piston-Cylinder Device	p. 97
Piston-Cylinder Die	p. 98
Equipment Configuration	p. 98
Computer Control and Software Development	p. 100
Compaction and Lubricants	p. 103
Compaction of Si[subscript 3]N[subscript 4] Powder	p. 103
Compaction of [gamma]-Al[subscript 2]O[subscript 3] Powder	p. 106
Nanosize [gamma]-Al[subscript 2]O[subscript 3] Powder Processing	p. 114
Compaction Equations for Powders	p. 123
Conclusions	p. 126
References	p. 127
Semiconductor Nanoparticles
Introduction	p. 130
Preparation and Characterization	p. 131
Size Control	p. 131
Crystalline Phase Control	p. 132
Size Quantization Effects	p. 134
Nonlinear Optical Properties	p. 135
Emission Characteristics	p. 135
Trapping of Charge Carriers	p. 136
Interfacial Charge Transfer Processes in Colloidal Semiconductor Systems	p. 137
Reductive Process	p. 138
Oxidative Process	p. 138
Kinetics of Interfacial Electron Transfer	p. 139
Photocatalytic Applications	p. 141
Organic Synthesis	p. 142
Fixation of Carbon Dioxide into Organic Compounds	p. 142
Reduction of Nitrogen	p. 146
Decomposition of Nitrogen Oxides and Their Anions	p. 146
Photocatalytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants	p. 146
Surface Modification of Semiconductor Colloids	p. 147
Deposition of Metals on Semiconductors	p. 147
Capping with Organic and Inorganic Molecules	p. 148
Surface Modification with Sensitizing Dyes	p. 150
Ultrafast Charge Injection into Semiconductor Nanocrystallites	p. 152
Designing Multicomponent Semiconductor Systems	p. 153
Ordered Nanostructures using Semiconductor Nanocrystallites and Their Functionality	p. 156
Preparation and Characterization of Nanostructured Semiconductor Films	p. 157
Electron Storage and Photo- and Electrochromic Effects	p. 160
As a Photosensitive Electrode	p. 161
Sensitization of Large-Band-Gap Semiconductors	p. 163
Single-Electron Tunneling Devices	p. 165
Concluding Remarks	p. 167
Acknowledgments	p. 167
References	p. 167
Colloidal Quantum Dots of III-V Semiconductors
Introduction	p. 183
Synthesis of Colloidal Quantum Dots	p. 185
Synthesis of Colloidal InP Quantum Dots	p. 186
Etching of Colloidal InP Quantum Dots with HF	p. 187
Synthesis of Colloidal GaP Quantum Dots	p. 187
Synthesis of Colloidal GaInP[subscript 2] Quantum Dots	p. 187
Properties of III-V Quantum Dots	p. 188
InP Quantum Dots	p. 188
GaP Quantum Dots	p. 198
GaInP[subscript 2] Quantum Dots	p. 200
GaAs Quantum Dots	p. 202
Summary	p. 203
Acknowledgment	p. 203
References	p. 203
Strained-Layer Heteroepitaxy to Fabricate Self-Assembled Semiconductor Islands
Introduction	p. 208
Trends in Semiconductor Nanostructures: Smaller in All Dimensions	p. 208
Processing: The Good and the Bad	p. 209
An Alternative: Self-Assembled Structures	p. 210
Outline of the Chapter	p. 211
Basics of Heteroepitaxy	p. 211
Fundamental Processes during Epitaxy	p. 211
Heteroepitaxial Growth Models	p. 213
Common Experimental Techniques	p. 215
Synthesis Techniques	p. 215
Characterization Techniques	p. 216
Two-Dimensional Growth and Island Formation Before Transition to Three-Dimensional Growth	p. 217
Initial Stages of the Two-Dimensional Layer Formation	p. 218
Transition from the Two-Dimensional Layer to Three-Dimensional Islands	p. 220
Effects of Surface Reconstruction	p. 223
Effects of Surface Orientation	p. 226
Three-Dimensional Islands	p. 229
Early Work	p. 229
Strain Relief from the Islands	p. 230
Different Types of Islands	p. 231
Impact of Deposition Conditions	p. 233
Impact of Surface Orientation	p. 235
Controlling the Location of Self-Assembled Islands	p. 236
Physical Properties and Applications of Self-Assembled Islands	p. 237
Physical Properties: Some Examples	p. 237
Self-Assembled Islands in Devices	p. 239
Use of Islands to Make Other Nanostructures	p. 240
Summary	p. 240
Acknowledgment	p. 241
References	p. 241
Hybrid Magnetic-Semiconductor Nanostructures
Introduction	p. 248
Electrons in Microscopically Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields	p. 249
Magnetic Field Profiles	p. 250
One-Dimensional Profiles	p. 250
Periodic Structures	p. 253
Quantum Motion in Nonhomogeneous Magnetic Fields	p. 255
Magnetic Step	p. 256
Magnetic Barrier	p. 258
Magnetic Quantum Well	p. 261
Resonant Tunneling Structures	p. 263
Magnetic Dot	p. 265
Diffusive Transport of Electrons through Magnetic Barriers	p. 268
Theoretical Formalism	p. 269
Single Magnetic Barrier	p. 270
Magnetic Barriers in Series	p. 272
One-Dimensional Magnetic Modulation	p. 273
Weak Magnetic Modulation	p. 274
Electric and Magnetic Modulations	p. 279
Magnetic Minibands	p. 282
Two-Dimensional Magnetic Modulation	p. 288
Periodic Two-Dimensional Modulation	p. 288
A Random Array of Identical Magnetic Disks	p. 289
Random Magnetic Fields	p. 290
Hall Effect Devices	p. 292
Ballistic Hall Magnetometry	p. 293
Hall Magnetometry in the Diffusive Regime	p. 297
Hybrid Hall Effect Device	p. 301
Nonpolarized Current Injection from Semiconductor into Ferromagnets	p. 305
Spin Injection Ferromagnetic/Semiconductor Structures	p. 306
Spin-Polarized Electronic Current from Ferromagnets	p. 306
Optical Detection of Spin-Polarized Tunnel Current	p. 306
Spin-Polarized Electronic (Tunnel) Current from Optically Pumped Semiconductors	p. 307
Spin-Polarized Current from Magnetic Contacts to Semiconductors	p. 308
Ferromagnetic/Semiconductor Experimental Structures	p. 310
The Need for Epitaxy	p. 310
General Metal Epitaxy Criteria	p. 311
Elemental Ferromagnetic Metal Epitaxy on Semiconductors	p. 312
Magnetic and Electrical Properties of Ferromagnets at the Ferromagnetic/Semiconductor Interfaces	p. 313
Properties of Managanese-Based Epitaxial Magnetic Layers on III-V Semiconductors	p. 314
Semiconductor/Ferromagnetic/Semiconductor Multilayers	p. 315
Nanoscale Magnets	p. 316
Introduction	p. 316
Self-Organized Magnetic Nanostructures in Semiconductor Thin Films	p. 316
Experimental Conditions for Thin Films with Nanoclusters by Molecular Beam Epitaxy + Annealing	p. 317
Superlattices of Nanoscale Magnet Layers and Semiconductors	p. 320
Engineering Aspects of Superlattices of Nanoscale Magnet Layers and Semiconductors	p. 320
Structural and Magnetic Properties of the Superlattices	p. 320
Current Perpendicular to the Plane Magnetotransport	p. 320
Conclusions	p. 321
Acknowledgments	p. 322
References	p. 322
Carbon Nanotubes
Introduction	p. 329
Structure	p. 331
Growth	p. 333
Synthesis of Nanotubes	p. 333
Purification of Nanotubes	p. 338
Growth Mechanisms	p. 339
Nanotube Properties	p. 340
Electronic Properties	p. 340
Mechanical Properties	p. 347
Other Properties	p. 350
Nanotube Templates	p. 350
Applications of Nanotubes	p. 353
Nanotubes Made from Noncarbon Materials	p. 355
Conclusions	p. 356
Acknowledgments	p. 357
References	p. 357
Encapsulation and Crystallization Behavior of Materials Inside Carbon Nanotubes
Introduction	p. 362
Methods of Opening, Filling, and Purifying Multiple- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 362
Preparation of Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes and Removal of Extraneous Carbon Material	p. 362
Opening and Decarboxylation of Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 364
Techniques for Filling Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes and Some Reactions of the Included Materials	p. 365
Chemical Methods for Filling Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 365
Filling Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes with Molten Media	p. 367
Arc and Catalytic Methods for Filling Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 372
Chemical Reactions inside Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 372
Purification of Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes from External Material Following Encapsulation	p. 373
Synthesis, Purification and Filling of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 374
Methods for Preparing Purified Samples of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 374
Filling of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes with Ruthenium Metal	p. 375
Crystallization Behavior inside Multiple- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 376
Control over Crystallite Morphology and Orientation in Multiple- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 376
Spiraling Crystal Growth inside Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 378
Crystallization Observed in Catalytically Formed Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 381
Relationship between Graphene Wall Periodicity and Crystallization inside Multiple- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	p. 382
Concluding Remarks	p. 384
Acknowledgments	p. 384
References	p. 384
Silicon-Based Nanostructures
Introduction	p. 387
Optical Properties of Silicon and Related Materials	p. 389
General Remarks	p. 389
Group IV Heterostructures: Electronic Zone Folding	p. 390
The Direct-Gap Material FeSi[subscript 2] as a Silicon-Based Light Emitter	p. 392
Erbium-Doped Silicon Light Emitters	p. 394
Quantum Confinement	p. 396
Two-, One-, and Zero-Dimensional Confinement	p. 396
Si-SiGe Quantum Wells	p. 398
Porous Silicon	p. 400
Postgrowth Nanofabrication by Lithography and Etching	p. 403
Self-Organized Growth	p. 412
Selective Epitaxial Growth	p. 416
V-Groove Growth	p. 419
Local Growth of Dots and Wires through Shadow Masks	p. 420
Silicon Nanocrystallites	p. 424
Si/III-V Light-Emitting Nanotips	p. 429
Single-Electron Electronics	p. 432
Tips for Atomic Force Microscopy and Field Emission	p. 436
Conclusions	p. 438
Acknowledgments	p. 438
References	p. 439
Electronic Transport Properties of Quantum Dots
Introduction	p. 445
Fabricated Quantum Dots: Vertical and Horizontal Systems	p. 445
Impurity Dot System: Coulomb Potential Confinement	p. 447
Theory	p. 448
Energy States of a Fabricated Quantum Dot	p. 448
Energy States of the Impurity Dot	p. 449
Current-Voltage Characteristics of Vertical Dot: Fabricated and Impurity Systems	p. 452
Sample Growth and Fabrication	p. 453
Experimental Results	p. 453
Current-Voltage Characteristics	p. 453
Variable-Temperature Measurements	p. 455
Magnetotunneling Measurements: Diamagnetic Shifts and Current Suppression	p. 458
Magnetotunneling Measurements: Fine Structure	p. 465
Magnetotunneling Measurements: Spin Splitting and g Factor	p. 469
Magnetotunneling Measurements: Electron Tunneling Rates	p. 473
Conclusions	p. 480
Acknowledgments	p. 481
References	p. 481
Photorefractive Semiconductor Nanostructures
Overview	p. 484
Photorefractive Quantum-Well Structures	p. 486
Molecular Beam Epitaxy Growth of Epilayers, Heterostructures, and Quantum Wells	p. 486
Defect Engineering	p. 487
Photorefractive Quantum-Well Geometries	p. 493
Electronic Transport and Grating Formation	p. 498
Dielectric Relaxation Time	p. 498
The Two-Band One-Defect Model	p. 499
Optical Properties of Photorefractive Multiple Quantum Wells	p. 503
Quantum-Confined Excitons	p. 503
Excitons in an Electric Field: Electroabsorption	p. 505
Kramers-Kronig Relation	p. 507
Diffraction	p. 508
Raman-Nath Diffraction	p. 508
Nondegenerate Four-Wave Mixing	p. 509
Two-Wave Mixing	p. 510
Photorefractive Effects and Applications	p. 511
Dynamics of the Stark Geometry	p. 511
Asymmetric Fabry-Perot and Microcavity Effects	p. 522
Novel Bandgap Engineering	p. 533
Applications of Photorefractive Quantum Wells in Ultrafast (Femtosecond) Optical Communications and Image Processing	p. 541
Acknowledgments	p. 558
References	p. 559
Linear and Nonlinear Optical Spectroscopy of Semiconductor Nanocrystals
Introduction	p. 563
Energy States and Optical Transitions in Semiconductor Nanocrystals: Theoretical Models	p. 565
Parabolic-Band Model	p. 566
Effects of Valence-Band Mixing	p. 567
Coulomb Effects	p. 572
Effects of the Finite Potential Barrier and Nonparabolicity of the Conduction Band	p. 573
Experimental Studies of Energy Structures in Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 574
Energy Gap in Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 574
Observations of Electron Quantized States	p. 577
Studies of Hole Energy Structures	p. 579
Fine Structure of the Lowest Exciton State	p. 582
Effects of Electron-Phonon Interactions on the Optical Spectra of Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 585
The Model of a Displaced Oscillator	p. 585
Electron-Optical Phonon Interactions	p. 587
Electron-Acoustic Phonon Interactions	p. 591
Band-Edge Optical Nonlinearities in Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 594
State-Filling and Optical Nonlinearities	p. 594
Coulomb Interactions and Optical Nonlinearities	p. 601
Third-Order Nonlinear Susceptibility	p. 605
Optical Nonlinearities in Direct- and Indirect-Gap Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 608
Carrier Dynamics in Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 611
Intraband Energy Relaxation Dynamics	p. 611
Carrier Recombination and Trapping Dynamics	p. 617
Auger Recombination in Semiconductor Nanocrystals	p. 625
Conclusions and Prospects	p. 634
Acknowledgments	p. 635
References	p. 636
Molecular and Supramolecular Nanomachines
Introduction	p. 641
Conventional Molecular Systems	p. 643
Conformational Change	p. 643
Configurational Change	p. 644
Constitutional Change	p. 646
Supramolecular Systems	p. 651
Crown Ethers	p. 651
Fluorescent Signaling Systems	p. 653
Redox Switches by Ligand Exchange	p. 655
Translocation in Helical Complexes	p. 656
Photoswitchable Complexation of Metalloporphyrins	p. 657
Dendritic Boxes: Ships in a Bottle	p. 658
Complexation/Decomplexation of Pseudorotaxanes	p. 659
Logic Gates	p. 665
Interlocked Molecular Systems	p. 671
Switching Properties in Catenanes	p. 671
An Electrochemically Controlled Self-Complexing Macrocycle	p. 680
Rotaxanes: From Molecular Shuttles to Molecular Switches	p. 681
Conclusions and Reflections	p. 686
References	p. 688
Functional Nanostructures Incorporating Responsive Modules
Introduction	p. 693
Functional Molecular Structures: General Definition	p. 695
Scope and Context of Review	p. 696
Rotaxanes and Catenanes: Nomenclature and General Synthetic Methods	p. 697
Learning from Nature: Bioactive Modules	p. 700
Light-Harvesting Antenna	p. 701
Light-Activated Biological Switches	p. 704
Overview	p. 706
Artificial Systems: Applications and Examples	p. 707
Artificial Molecular Systems Based on Rotaxanes, Catenanes, and Cyclophanes	p. 708
Photosynthetic Reaction Center Mimics	p. 734
Overview	p. 739
Miscellaneous Examples	p. 739
Ion Expulsion from Crown-Based Assemblies	p. 739
Molecular Capture by Conformational Switching	p. 740
Structural Modification by Ion Binding	p. 742
Concluding Remarks	p. 744
Acknowledgments	p. 744
References	p. 745
Structure, Behavior, and Manipulation of Nanoscale Biological Assemblies
Biological Molecules as Nanostructured Materials	p. 749
Scanning Probe Microscopy of Nanoscale Biological Assemblies	p. 751
Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 751
Scanning Probe Microscopy of Supported Biological Membranes	p. 759
DNA Imaging	p. 769
Scanning Probe Microscopy of Nucleoprotein Complexes	p. 783
Protein-Phospholipid Structures	p. 791
Protein-Lipid Complexes	p. 791
Morphology and Function of Native Membranes	p. 792
Protein-Lipid Interactions	p. 793
Nonnative Interactions	p. 796
Reconstitution of Integral Membrane Proteins	p. 797
Practical Applications of Protein-Lipid Complexes	p. 799
Surface-Immobilized Protein Nanostructures	p. 803
Oriented Protein Arrays	p. 804
Azimuthal Orientation	p. 811
Surface Patterning	p. 811
Three-Dimensional Protein Nanostructures: Protein Whiskers	p. 813
Additional Factors Affecting Nanostructure Architecture	p. 813
Characterization of Surface-Immobilized Nanostructures	p. 813
Future Directions	p. 815
Acknowledgments	p. 815
References	p. 815
Index	p. 823
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Nanostructured Materials and Nanotechnology

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