Preface xvii
Notes on Editors xix
Section I The Existence and Characterization of Microplastics 1
1 Introduction and Book Overview 3
Yasser Bashir, Nehaun Zargar, Neha Sharma, Almeenu Rasheed, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al-Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Chih-Ming Kao
1.1 Background and Definition 3`
1.2 Impacts of MPs on the Environment, Society, and Economics 7
1.3 Solutions, Knowledge Gaps, and Challenges 9
1.4 Policies and Practices to Regulate MPs 10
1.5 Book Structure and Overview of Chapters 11
1.6 Conclusion 12
References 13
2 Classifications and Physiochemical Properties of Microplastics 17
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Structural Properties 21
2.3 Physical Properties 28
2.4 Chemical Properties 31
2.5 Thermal Stability 33
2.6 Conclusion 34
References 35
3 Degradation of Plastics and Formation of Primary and Secondary Microplastics 43
Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
3.1 Introduction 43
3.2 Physical and Mechanical Degradation 46
3.3 Chemical Degradation 50
3.4 Biological Degradation 51
3.5 Degradation Pathway 54
3.6 Degradation Products and Byproducts 58
3.7 Toxicity of Products and Byproducts 59
3.8 Conclusion 61
References 61
4 Advanced Techniques for Sampling, Quantification, and Characterization of Microplastics 69
Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih-Ming Kao, Pu-Fong Liu, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
4.1 Screening 69
4.2 Sampling and Extraction 71
4.3 Characterization for Size, Shape, and Chemical Composition 84
4.4 Quantification 88
4.5 Harmonizing Approaches and Valuable Minimal Technical Criteria and Specification 90
4.6 Quality Assurance/Quality Control 95
4.7 Conclusion 97
References 98
5 Technologies for Polymer Identification and Monitoring of Microplastics Distribution 107
Akhil Gupta and Pratik Kumar
5.1 Introduction 107
5.2 Instrumentational Methods to Study Microplastics in Different Matrices 112
5.3 Technologies for Measuring Nano-Microplastics and Determining the Relative Contributions of Particles of Varying Size, Shape and Chemical Composition 115
5.4 Distribution and Monitoring of Microplastics 117
5.5 Review of Existing Monitoring Programs for Marine Microplastics 119
5.6 Other Techniques for Monitoring 127
5.7 Conclusions 130
References 130
6 Characterizing Microplastics in the Context of Risk Assessment 135
Akash Tripathi, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
6.1 Introduction 135
6.2 The TK/TD of MPs in a Representative Organism 136
6.3 Determining the Particle Size Range Where Any Toxicity Resides 142
6.4 Identifying Potential Uncertainties and Concerns 144
6.5 Determining Relative Levels of Confidence Regarding Toxicological Data 145
6.6 Conclusion 148
References 148
7 Understanding Environmental and Socio-economic Risks Associated with Microplastics 153
Azhan Ahmad, Monali Priyadarshini, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, and Rao Y. Surampalli
7.1 Background 153
7.2 Economic Impacts 154
7.3 Social Impacts 155
7.4 Environmental Sensitivity and Variability of Microplastic 157
7.5 Toxicological Impact of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms 159
7.6 Strategies for Managing Microplastic in the Environment 161
7.7 Conclusion and Way-forward 162
References 163
Section II Microplastics in Different Compartments and Their Effects on Environments and Humane Society 167
8 Microplastics in the Environment: Sources, Distribution, Fate, and Transport 169
Hua-Bin Zhong, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al-Hashimi
8.1 MPs in the Aquatic Environment (Surface/Ground Waters and Ocean) 169
8.2 MPs in the Terrestrial Environment (Soil and Sediment) 171
8.3 MPs in the Polar Region 173
8.4 MPs in the Atmospheric Environment and Transboundary Transport 175
8.5 MPs in Food and Agricultural Crops 179
8.6 MPs Associated with the Construction Industry 180
8.7 MPs in Urban Environmental Management Systems 183
8.8 Contaminants Released from Aged MPs 186
8.9 Fate/Transport and Behavior of MPs in Pollution Control Systems 188
8.10 Conclusion 200
References 200
9 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Various Aquatic Environmental Compartments 207
Mahima John Horta, Yerramilli Sai Rama Krishna, N. Seetha, and Pritha Chatterjee
9.1 Introduction 207
9.2 Transport Mechanisms of Microplastics in the Environment 210
9.3 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Riverine Environment 215
9.4 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Estuaries 226
9.5 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in Marine Environment 231
9.6 Modeling the Fate and Transport of Microplastics in the Subsurface 236
9.7 Conclusions 243
Acknowledgments 243
Nomenclature 244
References 247
10 Ecological Impacts of Microplastics and Their Additives: Exposure Risk/Toxicity Assessment and Fate/Transport of Persistent, Bio-Accumulative and Toxic Substances 259
Qamaruz Zaman Khaki and Pratik Kumar
10.1 Introduction 259
10.2 Creating Standardized Toxicity Tests for MPs 260
10.3 Dose–Response Analysis and Formulation of Standards 264
10.4 Acute and Chronic Toxicity of Microplastics 265
10.5 Chemical Risk Posed by Ingested Microplastics 265
10.6 Development of Health-Based Threshold 266
10.7 Effects of Exposure: Microplastics Transferred to the Consumers 266
10.8 Are Microplastics Vectors (for Organisms or Chemical Pollutants in the Environment)? – Sorption of Potentially Toxic Pollutants on Microplastics 269
10.9 Connect Microplastics to Existing or Novel Adverse Outcome Pathways 269
10.10 The Relevant Receptors 271
10.11 Exposure Pathways 272
10.12 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Ingestion 273
10.13 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Inhalation 273
10.14 Exposure Pathway to MP Via Dermal Contact 273
10.15 Toxicokinetic/Dynamic Processes 274
10.16 MPs Plus Chemicals/Nanomaterials/Pathogens Attached/Sorbed on them – Ecological Effects of Chemical Contaminants Adsorbed to Microplastics 274
10.17 Interrelationships Among Different Factors 276
10.18 Interaction of Microplastics with PBTs and Other Emerging Contaminants 276
10.19 Conclusion 277
References 278
11 Interactions of Microplastics with Microbial Communities and the Food Web/Plants 283
Santosh Kumar, Akash Tripathi, Shraddha Yadhav, Srishti Mishra, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar
11.1 Introduction 283
11.2 Interactions of MPs with Natural Organic Materials, Crops, and Plants 285
11.3 Interaction Between Microbial Community and MPs 291
11.4 Effect of MPs on Metabolic Activities of the Organisms 295
11.5 Leaching of MPs from Dumpsites to Soil 295
11.6 MPs from Silage Film for Storage of Silage 296
11.7 Change in the Geo-chemical Properties of Soil due to MPs 296
11.8 Effect of MPs on the Food Web and Food Chain 297
11.9 Are Biodegradable Plastics Less Negative Than the Others? 298
11.10 Biostimulation by Nutrients 299
11.11 Conclusion 300
References 300
12 Environmental and Toxicological Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Ecosystems 311
Jin-Min Li, Hua-Bin Zhong, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
12.1 Background 311
12.2 Sources of MPs in Aquatic Environments 312
12.3 Consumption of MPs by Aquatic Organisms and Increase in Aquatic Leaching Rate 316
12.4 Transport of MPs in the Aquatic Trophic Level 317
12.5 Occurrence of MPs in Aquatic Ecosystems 318
12.6 Effects of MPs on Freshwater Ecosystems 321
12.7 Effects of MPs in Marine Ecosystems 325
12.8 Increase in Toxicity and Impacts on Biodiversity 334
12.9 Conclusions 336
References 336
13 Human Exposures to Microplastics: Impact of Different Routes 347
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
13.1 Introduction 347
13.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Microplastics 349
13.3 Toxic Effects of Microplastics on Human Beings 356
13.4 Use of Biomarkers to Elucidate Microplastic Toxicity 362
13.5 Case Studies on Human Exposure 366
13.6 Conclusions 368
References 368
Section III Removal, Control, and Management of Microplastics 383
14 Plastic Pollution Management—Innovative Solutions for Plastic Waste 385
Saikat Sinha Ray, Randeep Singh, Mahesh Ganesapillai, and Young-Ho Ahn
14.1 Introduction 385
14.2 Design and Production 390
14.3 Packaging and Distribution 394
14.4 Disposal 402
14.5 System-based Approaches 407
14.6 Conclusion 410
References 411
15 Preventing Secondary Sources of Microplastics in the Environment 417
Zaid Mushtaq Bhat, Asif Farooq, Mavra Farooq, Mariha Feroz, and Khalid Muzamil Gani
15.1 Introduction 417
15.2 Reducing Usage of Plastics 418
15.3 Recycle and Reuse of Microplastics 419
15.4 Chemical Upcycling of Polymers 424
15.5 Polymer Construction and Deconstruction 427
15.6 Cleaning of Plastic Waste from Environment 428
15.7 Proper Monitoring of Plastic Waste 430
15.8 Different Multiple Thresholds the Tiered Framework 434
15.9 Conclusion 435
15.10 Future Perspective 436
References 436
16 Reducing and Eliminating Plastic Waste via Societal Changes 447
Pu-Fong Liu, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Ying-Liang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
16.1 Introduction 447
16.2 The Importance of Consumer Culture and Behavior 448
16.3 Reduction, Substitution, and Control of Microplastics From Human Usage 453
16.4 Future Directions 464
16.5 Conclusion 465
References 465
17 Technologies for Removal and Remediation of Microplastics 469
Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
17.1 Introduction 469
17.2 Microplastic Remediation Technologies 470
17.3 Conclusions 530
References 532
18 Catalysis for the Upcycling of Polymers 545
Debanjali Dey, Manisha Sain, Zahoor Manzoor, and Shamik Chowdhury
18.1 Introduction 545
18.2 Considerations for Substrates and Characterization 547
18.3 Application of Bio-Based Catalysts 549
18.4 Application of Electrocatalysts 550
18.5 Application of Chemical Catalysts 553
18.6 Conclusion 555
References 555
19 Biodegradable Bioplastics 559
Neha Sharma, Koran Barman, Nehaun Zargar, Almeenu Rasheed, and Sovik Das
19.1 Production of Bioplastics 559
19.2 Standards and Guidelines to Test the Biodegradability of Bioplastics 561
19.3 Application of Bioplastics 563
19.4 Limitations of Bioplastic 564
19.5 Environmental Sustainability of Bioplastics 566
19.6 Economic Assessment of Bioplastics 569
19.7 Comparison of Bioplastic with Polymer-Based Plastic 570
19.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 571
References 572
20 Global Strategies/Policies and Citizen Science for Microplastic Management 577
Jin-Min Li, Ming-Fang Yu, Chih-Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang
20.1 Guidelines for Pollutant Control at Source 577
20.2 Enforcement of Legislative Measures 580
20.3 Existing Regulations and Acts in Global Scenarios 583
20.4 Public Perception and Participation 587
20.5 Community Analysis-Based Models 591
20.6 Conclusions 593
References 594
21 Life Cycle and Techno-Economic Assessment of Microplastics Remediation Technologies and Policies 599
Almeenu Rasheed, Divyanshu Sikarwar, and Sovik Das
21.1 Introduction 599
21.2 Technological Efficiency and Social Impact 599
21.3 Economic Aspect and Cost–Benefit Analysis 601
21.4 LCA of Treatment Techniques 604
21.5 Conclusion 608
References 608
22 Case Studies on Microplastic Contamination with a Focus on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic 611
Lourembam Nongdren, Sai Lahar Reddy, Biswajit Samal, Kumar Raja Vanapalli, and Brajesh K. Dubey
22.1 Introduction 611
22.2 Microplastic Contamination 612
22.3 COVID-19 Pandemic: Impact on Waste Management 615
22.4 Interactions Between Microplastics and COVID-19 616
22.5 Case Studies: COVID-19-Related Microplastic Pollution 617
22.6 Environmental Consequences of Microplastics and COVID-19 618
22.7 Human Health Risks 621
22.8 Mitigation Strategies 622
22.9 Conclusion 624
References 625
Index 629
