Light microscopic techniques in biology and medicine

I: Conventional techniques of microscopic observation.- 1 Some Essentials of Geometrical Optics.- Geometrical optics and wave optics.- Resolving power and the eye.- The simple microscope.- Lens aberrations.- Properties of lens combinations.- The compound microscope.- Suggestions for further reading.- 2 From Optical Principle to a Practical Instrument.- Some notes about the history of the microscope.- The stand and its parts.- Stereoscopic vision and the microscope.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 3 Objectives.- Numerical aperture.- Immersion-objectives.- The cover glass effect.- Types of objective.- Qualifications and performance of an objective.- Special objectives.- - mirror- or reflecting objectives.- - objectives for use with invisible light.- - photomicrographic objectives.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 4 Eyepieces or Oculars.- Main types of eyepiece.- Exit pupil and the eye.- Eyepiece and field of view.- The meaning of eyepiece magnification.- Special types of eyepiece.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 5 Relation of Objective and Eyepiece.- Resolving power.- Objective, eyepiece and the eye.- Depth of field.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 6 Condenser and Illumination.- The function of the condenser.- Critical illumination and Kohler illumination.- Types of condenser.- Special types of illumination; incident illumination.- The light source.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 7 Specimen, Microscope and Observer; Microscopy in Practice.- The microscopic object as an optical model.- The technique of microscopic observation.- - Position of the observer and the placing of the microscope.- - General rules for setting up a microscope.- - Use of immersion objectives.- - Light and illumination in practice.- - On the way through the object.- - Microscopy for observers wearing spectacles.- Maintenance and small technical difficulties.- - Care of the stand and the cleaning of optical components.- - Frequently occurring minor technical troubles.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- II: Advanced techniques of microscopy.- 8 Special Techniques of Illumination.- Oblique illumination.- Dark-field illumination.- Fluorescence microscopy.- - General principles.- - Optical arrangements with a fluorescence microscope.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 9 Special Techniques of Image Formation.- Phase contrast microscopy.- - Basic principles.- - Practical realization of the phase contrast principle.- - Some further details about the phase contrast image with different objects.- Interference microscopy.- - Basic principles; the meaning of a refractive index.- - Interferometric measuring systems.- - Differential interference contrast.- Polarization microscopy.- - Basic principles of birefringence.- - The polarization microscope.- - Some applications of polarization microscopy in biological research.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 10 Recording and Reproduction of Microscopic Images.- Photomicrography.- - General principles.- - Photomicrographic equipment.- - The photomicrographic exposure.- - Contrasts in the negative.- - Colour photomicrography.- Some special techniques in photomicrography.- - Microflash.- - Stereophotomicrography.- - Holography.- - Cinemicrography.- Other techniques for registration and reproduction of microscopic images.- - Drawing devices.- - Microprojection.- - Television-microscopy.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 11 Measurements with the Microscope.- General introduction.- Morphometric analysis.- - Measurement of length in a focussing plane.- - Measurement of distances along the optical axis.- - Measurement of length oblique to the optical axis.- Measurement of areas and volumes.- - Measurement of areas.- - Measurement of volumes; stereology.- Automatic and semi-automatic image analysis.- Microspectrophotometry and microphotometry.- - Microspectrophotometry.- - Microphotometry.- Microspectrofluorometry and microfluorometry.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- 12 Microscopy with Invisible Electromagnetic Radiation.- Microscopy and the electromagnetic spectrum.- Ultraviolet microscopy.- Infrared microscopy.- Use of X-rays.- - Some fundamental properties of X-rays and their applications.- - X-ray microscopy.- - Contact microradiography.- - Projection-microradiography.- Literature cited and suggestions for further reading.- Appendix I Table of refractive indices.- Appendix II Four-lingual vocabulary of some commonly used technical terms in microscopy.