About this resource vi
Accessing online resources ix
Acknowledgements xi
Unit 3 How Do Cells Maintain Life? 1
Area of Study 1 What Is the Role of Nucleic Acids and Proteins in Maintaining Life?
1 The relationship between nucleic acids and proteins 3
1.1 Overview 4
1.2 Background Knowledge Reviewing cells 5
1.3 Nucleic acids as information molecules 18
1.4 The genetic code and protein synthesis 28
1.5 The structure of genes 40
1.6 Gene regulation 45
1.7 Amino acids and polypeptides 52
1.8 The proteome 61
1.9 Organelles involved in the protein secretory pathway 65
1.10 Review 72
2 DNA manipulation techniques and applications 85
2.1 Overview 86
2.2 The use of enzymes to manipulate DNA 87
2.3 CRISPR-Cas9 97
2.4 Amplification of DNA using polymerase chain reaction 103
2.5 The use of gel electrophoresis 108
2.6 Recombinant plasmids 124
2.7 The use of genetically modified and transgenic organisms 138
2.8 Review 148
Area of Study 1 Review
Practice examination 159
Practice school-assessed coursework 166
Area of Study 2 How Are Biochemical Pathways Regulated?
3 Regulation of biochemical pathways 169
3.1 Overview 170
3.2 Biochemical pathways 171
3.3 The role of enzymes in biochemical pathways 177
3.4 The role of coenzymes in biochemical pathways 189
3.5 Factors that impact enzyme function 197
3.6 Review 213
4 Photosynthesis, cellular respiration and biotechnological applications 225
4.1 Overview 226
4.2 Photosynthesis 227
4.3 Adaptations in C3, C4 and CAM plants 242
4.4 Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis 255
4.5 Cellular respiration 264
4.6 Anaerobic fermentation 280
4.7 Factors that affect the rate of cellular respiration 288
4.8 Improving photosynthetic efficiencies and crop yields using CRISPR-Cas9 295
4.9 Uses and applications of the anaerobic fermentation of biomass 302
4.10 Review 309
Area of Study 2 Review
Practice examination 321
Practice school-assessed coursework 327
Unit 4 How Does Life Change and Respond to Challenges? 333
Area of Study 1 How Do Organisms Respond to Pathogens?
5 Responding to antigens and acquiring immunity 335
5.1 Overview 336
5.2 Antigens, pathogens and allergens 337
5.3 Subdivisions of immunity 359
5.4 Physical, chemical and microbiota barriers 365
5.5 The components of innate immunity 373
5.6 The inflammatory response in innate immunity 389
5.7 The role of the lymphatic system 395
5.8 Initiation of an adaptive immune response 401
5.9 The adaptive immune response 408
5.10 Humoral adaptive immunity and B lymphocytes 413
5.11 Cell-mediated adaptive immunity and cytotoxic T cells 422
5.12 Natural and artificial immunity 428
5.13 Review 436
6 Disease challenges and strategies 447
6.1 Overview 448
6.2 The emergence and re-emergence of pathogens 449
6.3 Identifying and controlling the spread of pathogens 459
6.4 Vaccination programs and herd immunity 484
6.5 Development of immunotherapy strategies 494
6.6 Review 505
Area of Study 1 Review
Practice examination 517
Practice school-assessed coursework 522
Area of Study 2 How Are Species Related Over Time?
7 Genetic changes in a population over time 525
7.1 Overview 526
7.2 Gene pools and allele frequencies 527
7.3 Environmental selection pressures, genetic drift and gene flow 532
7.4 Mutations as the source of new alleles 547
7.5 Biological consequences of changing allele frequencies 562
7.6 Selective breeding programs 569
7.7 The consequences of rapid genetic change in pathogens 575
7.8 Review 587
8 Changes in species over time 599
8.1 Overview 600
8.2 Changes in species over geological time 601
8.3 Evidence from fossils 618
8.4 Speciation 638
8.5 Review 653
9 Determining the relatedness over time 665
9.1 Overview 666
9.2 Structural morphology 667
9.3 Molecular homology 677
9.4 Phylogenetic trees 688
9.5 Review 698
10 Human change over time 711
10.1 Overview 712
10.2 Shared characteristics of mammals, primates, hominoids and hominins 713
10.3 Major trends in hominin evolution 732
10.4 Interpretation of the human fossil record 752
10.5 Evidence of the migration of modern human populations 768
10.6 Review 782
Area of Study 2 Review
Practice examination 793
Practice school-assessed coursework 801
Area of Study 3 How Is Scientific Inquiry Used to Investigate Cellular Processes and/or Biological Change?
11 Scientific investigations
11.1 Overview
11.2 Key science skills and concepts in biology
11.3 Characteristics of scientific methodology and primary data generation
11.4 Health, safety and ethical guidelines
11.5 Accuracy, precision, reproducibility, repeatability and validity of measurements
11.6 Ways of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data
11.7 The nature of evidence and key findings of investigations
11.8 Assumptions and limitations in investigations
11.9 Conventions of science communication
11.10 Conventions of scientific poster presentation
11.11 Review
Area of Study 3 Exam
Practice examination 809
Appendix: Amino acid data 815
Glossary 817
Index 833
