Introduction to Geochemistry

1 / The Earth as a Chemical System.- 1.1. The Earth within the Solar System.- 1.2. The Scale of Time.- 1.3. The Overall Chemical Composition of the Earth, the Solar System, and the Universe.- 1.4. Chemical Compounds in the Solar System: Cosmological Minerals.- 1.4.1. Simple Molecules.- 1.4.2. Simple Solids.- 1.4.3. Silicates.- 1.4.4. Carbon Polymers.- 1.4.5. Fe-Ni Alloys.- 1.5. Chemical Constitution of the Earth.- 1.5.1. The Atmosphere.- 1.5.2. The Hydrosphere.- 1.5.3. The Biosphere.- 1.5.4. The Lithosphere.- 1.6. Geochemical Classification.- 1.7. The Earth as a Chemical Factory.- 2 / The Equilibria of Phases in the Lithosphere.- 2.1. Metamorphic Equilibria.- 2.1.1. General Characteristics of Metamorphic Terrains.- 2.1.1.1. The Paragenetic Association of Metamorphic Rocks.- 2.1.1.2. Existence of Metamorphic Zones.- 2.1.2. Thermodynamic Interpretation of Metamorphic Facies.- 2.1.3. Determination of Metamorphic Phase Diagrams.- 2.1.4. Conclusions. General Characteristics of Metamorphism.- 2.2. Phase Equilibria in the Silicate Magmas.- 2.2.1. Basalts and Granites.- 2.2.2. The Genesis of Granite. Experimental Results. Study of Phase Diagrams.- 2.2.2.1. The Albite-Anorthite System.- 2.2.2.2. Quartz-Potash Feldspar System.- 2.2.2.3. The Albite-Potash Feldspar System.- 2.2.2.4. Complex Two-Component Systems.- 2.2.2.5. Total Pressure and Fluid (H2O) Pressure.- 2.2.2.6. The Ternary System Silica-Albite-Orthoclase.- 2.2.2.7. Comparison of Experiments with Field Observations.- 2.2.3. The Genesis of Basalts.- 2.2.3.1. The Evolution of Basalts and Fractional Crystallization.- 2.2.3.2. The Origin of Basaltic Magma.- 2.2.3.3. Hawaii and the Model of G. A. MacDonald.- 2.2.3.4. The Rittman-Kuno Relationship.- 2.3. Magmatism or Metamorphism. The Conditions for Their Appearance.- 3 / Chemical Equilibria in the Hydrosphere.- 3.1. Chemical Reactions in the Hydrosphere.- 3.1.1. Classification of Reactions.- 3.1.2. Acid-Base Reactions in Natural Water.- 3.1.2.1. Principal Factors.- 3.1.2.2. The Carbonate System.- 3.1.2.3. The Alkalinity.- 3.1.2.4. pH of Several Natural Environments.- 3.1.2.5. Influence of pH on the Mobility of the Elements.- 3.1.2.6. Conclusions.- 3.1.3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions in Natural Water.- 3.1.3.1. Chief Redox Pairs in Natural Waters.- 3.1.3.2. Aerated Environments.- 3.1.3.3. Reducing Environments.- 3.1.3.4. Overall Picture of Oxidation-Reduction Phenomena at the Earth's Surface.- 3.1.3.5. Influence of the State of Oxidation-Reduction on the Mobility of the Elements.- 3.1.4. Formation of Complexes.- 3.1.4.1. Combinations of the Major Ions in Sea Water.- 3.1.4.2. Formation of Complexes among Minor Ion Species.- 3.2. Study of the Saturation of Sea Water with Calcite.- 3.2.1. Activity Coefficients in Sea Water.- 3.2.2. Variation of the Apparent Constants as a Function of S, T, P.- 3.2.3. Experimental Studies of the 'Carbonate System' of the Ocean.- 3.2.4. Calcite or Aragonite.- 3.2.5. Balance of Calcium in the Ocean.- 4 / The Geochemical Fractionation of Trace Elements.- Partition of a Trace Element between Two Phases.- 4.1. Fractionation of the Trace Elements in Magmatic Processes.- 4.1.1. Models of the Partition of the Trace Elements during the Magmatic Processes.- 4.1.1.1. Model of Fractional Crystallization.- 4.1.1.2. Model for Partial Melting.- 4.1.1.3. Mixing Model.- 4.1.2. Determination of the Partition Coefficients.- 4.1.3. Variations of the Ratio K/Rb in Nature.- 4.1.4. Differentiation of the Rare Earths.- 4.1.4.1. Diagrams by Coryell et al..- 4.1.4.2. Europium and Cerium.- 4.1.4.3. The Genesis of Basic Terrestrial Magmas.- 4.1.5. The Transition Elements.- 4.1.5.1. Use of Coryell et al.'s Diagram.- 4.1.5.2. Crystal-Field Theory.- 4.2. Trapping of Trace Elements in Sediments.- 4.2.1. Impossibility of Direct Precipitation from Sea Water for Many Elements.- 4.2.2. Precipitation in Anoxic Environments.- 4.2.3. Processes of Entrainment.- 5 / Irreversible Processes of Element Transfer.- 5.1. Evaluation of the Transfer of Elements during Irreversible Geochemical Processes.- 5.1.1. Generalities.- 5.1.2. Mobile and Inert Elements.- 5.1.3. Second Method of Helgeson.- 5.2. Box Model.- 5.2.1. Concept of Residence Time.- 5.2.2. Models of the Ocean.- 5.3. Chemical Diffusion-Reaction Coupling.- 5.3.1. Generalities.- 5.3.2. Distribution of Sulfates in the Interstitial Waters of the Santa Barbara Basin.- 5.3.3. Diffusion and Partition Coefficient.- 5.4. Deposit of Manganese in Ocean Depths.- 6 / The Fractionation of the Light Isotopes.- 6.1. The Evidence Concerning the Natural Fractionation of Isotopes.- 6.2. The Modes of Isotopic Fractionation.- 6.2.1. Fractionation at Equilibrium.- 6.2.2. Kinetic Fractionation.- 6.2.3. The Transition of Kinetic Fractionation to Equilibrium Fractionation: Isotopic Exchange.- 6.3. Relationship between ? and ?.- 6.3.1. Open Environment.- 6.3.2. Closed Environment.- 6.4. The 18O/16O Isotopic Composition of the Silicates and Geothermometry.- 6.5. Isotopic Composition 32S/34S of Sulfide Ore Deposits.- 6.6. Some Aspects of the Water Cycle and the Associated Isotopic Fractionation.- 6.6.1. The Isotopic Functioning of Clouds and Precipitation.- 6.6.2. The Glaciers, Isotopic Record of the Quaternary Climates.- 6.6.3. Juvenile Water.- 6.6.4. Meteoritic Water - Magma Interactions in the Genesis of Hydrothermal Deposits.- 7 / Fractionation of Radioactive Isotopes and Isotopes of Radioactive Origin.- 7.1. General Equation for the Evolution of a Radioactive System.- 7.1.1. Comments on the Conditions of Integration.- 7.1.1.1. The System is Closed.- 7.1.1.2. The System Only Loses Elements without Gaining Any.- 7.1.1.3. The Environment Gains Matter Constantly without Losing Any.- 7.2. Evaluation of the Functions G (t) and J (t) and the Potassium-Argon Time Scale.- 7.2.1. Determination of Values of G(t).- 7.2.2. Evaluation of J(t).- 7.3. Isotopic Re-Equilibration of Strontium During Metamorphism.- 7.4. Loss of Radiogenic Elements in Rich Systems and Chronology of U-Th-Pb From Zircons.- 7.5. Evolution and Nature of the Earth's Mantle.- 7.6. Evolution of the Initial Ratios of (87Sr/86Sr) and (206Pb/204Pb) in Granites and the Formation of the Continents.