| Preface, scope, and acknowledgments | p. xiii |
| Definitions and predator recognition | |
| Introduction | p. 1 |
| The predatory sequence | p. 3 |
| Definitions | p. 7 |
| Adaptation and evolution | p. 7 |
| Antipredator terminology | p. 9 |
| Ability of prey to recognize predators | p. 13 |
| Recognition by young animals | p. 15 |
| Innate recognition | p. 15 |
| Learning to recognize predators | p. 18 |
| Relaxed selection | p. 24 |
| Observer bias | p. 28 |
| Summary | p. 30 |
| Morphological traits to avoid detection | |
| Introduction | p. 33 |
| Background matching | p. 35 |
| Color resemblance in mammals | p. 35 |
| Color resemblance in birds | p. 38 |
| Color resemblance in birds' eggs | p. 42 |
| Special resemblance in birds' nests | p. 45 |
| Melanism | p. 47 |
| Changes in coloration with changing environments | p. 49 |
| Masquerade | p. 53 |
| Concealing shadow | p. 55 |
| Disruptive coloration | p. 59 |
| Apostatic selection | p. 61 |
| Summary | p. 64 |
| Behavioral mechanisms to avoid detection | |
| Introduction | p. 67 |
| Nest site selection in birds | p. 68 |
| Habitat type | p. 71 |
| Distance from edges | p. 71 |
| Habitat patch size | p. 74 |
| Vegetation around the nest site | p. 75 |
| Nest height | p. 77 |
| Proximity to nests | p. 78 |
| Distribution of nests | p. 81 |
| Proximity to social insects | p. 83 |
| Behavior reducing the probability of predators detecting nests | p. 84 |
| Refuges | p. 87 |
| Physical structures | p. 88 |
| Habitat shifts in rodents | p. 89 |
| Habitat shifts in ungulates | p. 91 |
| Reduced activity | p. 94 |
| Hiding in ungulates | p. 99 |
| Changes in foraging under risk of predation | p. 100 |
| When to eat | p. 102 |
| Where to eat | p. 104 |
| What to eat | p. 107 |
| How much to eat | p. 108 |
| Effects of age and reproductive condition on risk-sensitive foraging | p. 108 |
| Changes in reproduction under risk of predation | p. 110 |
| Summary | p. 112 |
| Vigilance and group size | |
| Introduction | p. 115 |
| Measures of vigilance | p. 116 |
| Benefits of individual vigilance | p. 118 |
| Costs of individual vigilance | p. 122 |
| Effects of group size on vigilance | p. 123 |
| Increased probability of predator detection | p. 124 |
| Reduced individual vigilance | p. 126 |
| Increased foraging | p. 136 |
| Why don't individuals cheat? | p. 136 |
| Predator detection is not collective | p. 139 |
| Vigilant nondetectors are at an advantage | p. 141 |
| Predators select low-vigilance individuals | p. 141 |
| Individuals maintain vigilance so as not to lose group members | p. 142 |
| Multiple attacks are possible | p. 142 |
| Vigilance in mixed-species groups | p. 143 |
| Summary | p. 149 |
| Factors affecting vigilance | |
| Introduction | p. 151 |
| Distance from conspecifics and perceived group size | p. 152 |
| Position in the group | p. 156 |
| Sentinels | p. 159 |
| The influence of cover | p. 162 |
| Age and parity | p. 166 |
| Sex differences and dominance | p. 170 |
| Miscellaneous factors | p. 172 |
| Predator abundance | p. 174 |
| Interspecific differences in vigilance | p. 176 |
| Summary | p. 178 |
| Conspecific warning signals | |
| Introduction | p. 181 |
| Acoustic constraints on alarm calls | p. 183 |
| Localizability | p. 183 |
| Detectability | p. 184 |
| Costs of warning signals | p. 187 |
| Benefits of warning signals | p. 190 |
| Apparently selfish alarm calls | p. 190 |
| Mutually beneficial alarm calls | p. 192 |
| Altruistic and kin-selected alarm calls | p. 194 |
| Alarm calls between species | p. 201 |
| Variation in alarm calls | p. 205 |
| Sciurids | p. 205 |
| Birds | p. 210 |
| Primates | p. 212 |
| Development of conspecific warning signals | p. 215 |
| Ontogeny of response | p. 215 |
| Ontogeny of alarm calls | p. 217 |
| Use of warning signals in deception | p. 219 |
| Summary | p. 221 |
| Signals of unprofitability | |
| Introduction | p. 225 |
| The evolution of aposematism | p. 227 |
| Individual selection | p. 227 |
| Kin selection | p. 227 |
| Synergistic selection | p. 229 |
| Mechanisms by which predators select prey | p. 230 |
| Single prey | p. 230 |
| Aggregated prey | p. 233 |
| Aposematism in birds | p. 235 |
| Mimicry in birds | p. 241 |
| Aposematism in mammals | p. 242 |
| Pursuit deterrence | p. 244 |
| Low-cost perception advertisement signals | p. 249 |
| Auditory signals of perception advertisement | p. 250 |
| Inspection as perception advertisement | p. 251 |
| Foot drumming as advertising predator monitoring | p. 254 |
| Stotting as perception and quality advertisement | p. 255 |
| Leaping as quality advertisement | p. 258 |
| Song as quality advertisement | p. 258 |
| Quality advertisement in poikilotherms | p. 259 |
| Summary | p. 261 |
| Antipredator benefits of grouping | |
| Introduction | p. 265 |
| Definition of groups | p. 266 |
| The dilution effect | p. 267 |
| Rates of encounter | p. 269 |
| Reduced risk of capture | p. 271 |
| The Trafalgar effect | p. 274 |
| The confusion effect | p. 275 |
| Oddity and confusion | p. 278 |
| Predator "swamping" | p. 280 |
| Reproductive synchrony | p. 282 |
| Miscellaneous mechanisms | p. 285 |
| Position in the group | p. 285 |
| Colonially nesting birds | p. 288 |
| Flocks and herds | p. 291 |
| Primate groups | p. 293 |
| Ecocorrelates of antipredator grouping in homeotherms | p. 299 |
| Summary | p. 301 |
| Morphological and physiological defenses | |
| Introduction | p. 305 |
| Body size | p. 306 |
| Body size and locomotor performance | p. 309 |
| Forms of locomotion | p. 312 |
| Spines and quills | p. 314 |
| Dermal plates and thickened skin | p. 317 |
| Weapons used for feeding | p. 319 |
| Sexually selected weaponry | p. 319 |
| Malodor and unpalatability | p. 324 |
| Venom resistance | p. 327 |
| Life history characteristics | p. 329 |
| Summary | p. 332 |
| Nest defense | |
| Introduction | p. 335 |
| Scope of nest defense activities | p. 337 |
| The study of nest defense | p. 340 |
| Distraction displays | p. 343 |
| Costs of nest defense | p. 346 |
| Benefits of nest defense | p. 347 |
| Driving predators away | p. 347 |
| Silencing offspring | p. 349 |
| Effects of predation risk on nest defense | p. 350 |
| Parent's renesting potential | p. 354 |
| Renesting potential within breeding seasons | p. 354 |
| Renesting potential over lifetimes | p. 359 |
| Parental sex | p. 360 |
| Parental interactions | p. 363 |
| Offspring age | p. 364 |
| Past and future parental investment | p. 366 |
| Changes in offspring vulnerability | p. 366 |
| Revisitation hypothesis | p. 367 |
| Offspring number | p. 368 |
| Offspring condition | p. 371 |
| Harm-to-offspring hypothesis | p. 372 |
| Parental defense in mammals | p. 375 |
| Summary | p. 377 |
| Mobbing and group defense | |
| Introduction | p. 381 |
| Definition of mobbing | p. 383 |
| Variation in mobbing behavior | p. 384 |
| Costs of mobbing | p. 386 |
| Benefits of mobbing | p. 387 |
| Direct benefits: lethal counterattack | p. 387 |
| Direct benefits: the move-on hypothesis | p. 388 |
| Direct benefits: perception advertisement | p. 391 |
| Direct benefits: selfish-herd effect and confusion effect | p. 391 |
| Direct benefits: attract the mightier | p. 391 |
| Indirect benefits: alerting others | p. 392 |
| Indirect benefits: silencing offspring | p. 392 |
| Benefits unclear: cultural transmission | p. 393 |
| Other hypotheses | p. 395 |
| Mobbing and group size | p. 395 |
| Mobbing and mixed-species associations in birds | p. 398 |
| Group defense in mammals | p. 404 |
| Snake-directed behavior in sciurids | p. 404 |
| Protective behavior in ungulates | p. 405 |
| Group attacks in primates | p. 408 |
| Summary | p. 411 |
| Flight and behaviors of last resort | |
| Introduction | p. 413 |
| Freezing and immobility | p. 414 |
| Defense calls and flash coloration | p. 415 |
| Counterattack | p. 417 |
| Methods of escape | p. 418 |
| Birds | p. 419 |
| Mammals | p. 422 |
| Flight distance | p. 423 |
| Flight and weight gain in birds | p. 426 |
| Autotomy and deflection of attack | p. 431 |
| Fear screams | p. 434 |
| Death feigning | p. 438 |
| Summary | p. 440 |
| Framing questions about antipredator defenses | |
| Introduction | p. 443 |
| Synergism between morphology and behavior | p. 445 |
| Defenses shown by different prey to different predators | p. 447 |
| Prey employ different defenses against different predators | p. 447 |
| Different prey use different defenses against the same predator | p. 450 |
| Prey summon several defenses against the same predator | p. 453 |
| Repeated use of the same defense | p. 453 |
| Different defenses | p. 453 |
| Predator-prey coevolution | p. 456 |
| Ten pressing questions | p. 458 |
| How important is coloration in antipredator defense? | p. 458 |
| How can we explain patterns of morphological and physiological defenses across taxa? | p. 458 |
| How do antipredator morphology and behavior interact? | p. 459 |
| Do prey recognize individual predators? | p. 459 |
| How common are multifunctional defenses? | p. 460 |
| How do predators respond to interactions with prey over time? | p. 460 |
| How common are multiple attacks on grouped prey? | p. 461 |
| Do predators select prey on the basis of condition? | p. 461 |
| Do individual predators vary in hunting style? | p. 462 |
| How do predator learning mechanisms affect antipredator defenses? | p. 462 |
| Why are defenses imperfect? | p. 463 |
| Summary | p. 464 |
| Scientific names of vertebrates mentioned in the text | p. 467 |
| References | p. 487 |
| Prey species index | p. 577 |
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