Advanced Dairy Chemistry : Volume 2 Lipids

Volume 2 Lipids

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By: Patrick F. Fox (Editor), Paul McSweeney (Editor)

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Published: February 2006

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The Advanced Dairy Chemistry series was first published in four volumes in the 1980s (under the title Developments in Dairy Chemistry) and revised in three volumes in the 1990s. The series is the leading reference on dairy chemistry, providing in-depth coverage of milk proteins, lipids, lactose, water and minor constituents.

Advanced Dairy Chemistry Volume 2: Lipids, Third Edition, is unique in the literature on milk lipids, a broad field that encompasses a diverse range of topics, including synthesis of fatty acids and acylglycerols, compounds associated with the milk fat fraction, analytical aspects, behavior of lipids during processing and their effect on product characteristics, product defects arising from lipolysis and oxidation of lipids, as well as nutritional significance of milk lipids.

Most topics included in the second edition are retained in the current edition, which has been updated and considerably expanded. New chapters cover the following subjects: Biosynthesis and nutritional significance of conjugated linoleic acid, which has assumed major significance during the past decade; Formation and biological significance of oxysterols; The milk fat globule membrane as a source of nutritionally and technologically significant products; Physical, chemical and enzymatic modification of milk fat; Significance of fat in dairy products: creams, cheese, ice cream, milk powders and infant formulae; Analytical methods: chromatographic, spectroscopic, ultrasound and physical methods.

This authoritative work summarizes current knowledge on milk lipids and suggests areas for further work. It will be very valuable to dairy scientists, chemists and others working in dairy research or in the dairy industry.

Composition and Structure of Bovine Milk Lipids
Introduction	p. 1
Fatty Acids	p. 3
Origins of the Fatty Acids	p. 4
Saturated Fatty Acids	p. 5
Cis-unsaturated Fatty Acids	p. 5
Trans-unsaturated Fatty Acids	p. 7
Minor Fatty Acids	p. 9
Variations in Fatty Acid Composition	p. 10
Triacylglycerols	p. 11
Structure of Triacylglycerols	p. 13
Composition of Triacylglycerols	p. 14
Polar Lipids	p. 19
Composition and Structure	p. 21
Ceramides and Gangliosides	p. 25
Health Issues	p. 27
Minor Constituents	p. 27
Sterols	p. 27
Carotenoids	p. 28
Fat-soluble Vitamins	p. 28
Flavour Compounds	p. 29
Milk Fat From Different Animal Species	p. 30
Gross Composition	p. 30
Fatty Acids	p. 31
Triacylglycerols	p. 33
Polar Lipids	p. 34
Bibliography	p. 35
Milk Fat: Origin of Fatty Acids and Influence of Nutritional Factors Thereon
Abstract	p. 43
Introduction	p. 44
Origin of the Fatty Acids in Milk Fat	p. 45
Overview	p. 45
Fatty Acid Transport	p. 45
Lipoprotein Lipase	p. 47
Transport of Long-Chain Fatty Acids into Mammary Cells	p. 48
Summary of the Supply of Long-Chain Fatty Acids to the Mammary Gland	p. 50
Uptake of Non-Lipid Metabolites by Lactating Mammary Glands	p. 51
Fatty Acid Synthesis in Mammary Glands	p. 52
Sources of Carbon and Reducing Equivalents for Fatty Acid Synthesis	p. 52
Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase	p. 55
Fatty Acid Synthase	p. 58
Regulation of Acyl Chain Length	p. 60
Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase	p. 62
Triacylglycerol Synthesis	p. 63
Fatty Acid Esterification by the Monoacylglycerol Pathway	p. 66
Synthesis of Complex Lipids	p. 66
Synthesis of Phospholipids	p. 67
Sphingolipids	p. 68
Cholesterol	p. 68
Physiological Factors That Influence Milk Fat Composition	p. 69
Genetics	p. 69
Stage of Lactation	p. 69
Effects of Dietary Fat on the Composition of Milk Fat	p. 71
Effects of Low-fat Diets	p. 71
Effects of Specific Fatty Acids	p. 71
Feeding for Specific Milk Fatty Acid Profiles	p. 73
Supplementation with Oilseeds and Commercial Fats	p. 74
Low Milk Fat Syndrome	p. 78
Milk Fat Composition and Quality	p. 78
Acknowledgment	p. 80
Bibliography	p. 80
Conjugated Linoleic Acid: Biosynthesis and Nutritional Significance
Abstract	p. 93
Introduction	p. 94
Dietary Sources	p. 96
Analytical Challenges	p. 97
Origin of CLA in Milk Fat	p. 99
Lipid Metabolism in the Rumen	p. 99
cis-9, trans-11 CLA (Rumenic Acid)	p. 102
trans-7, cis-9 CLA	p. 104
The [Delta superscript 9]-Desaturase Enzyme System	p. 105
Other CLA Isomers	p. 106
Modification of CLA Content in Milk Fat	p. 107
Dietary and Nutritional Effects	p. 108
Physiological Factors	p. 111
Manufacturing and Product Quality Considerations	p. 112
Biological Effects of CLA Isomers	p. 114
trans-10, cis-12 CLA and Lipid Metabolism	p. 114
Rumenic Acid and Human Health	p. 120
Bibliography	p. 125
Intracellular Origin of Milk Fat Globules and the Nature of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
Introduction	p. 137
Intracellular Origin and Growth of Milk Fat Globules	p. 138
Intracellular Transit of Lipid Droplets	p. 142
Secretion of Milk Fat Globules	p. 143
Isolation and Gross Composition of MFGM	p. 150
Lipid Composition of the MFGM	p. 151
Enzymes Associated with the MFGM	p. 153
Proteins of the MFGM	p. 155
Molecular Organization of the MFGM	p. 163
Perspectives	p. 164
Acknowledgements	p. 164
Bibliography	p. 165
Physical Chemistry of Milk Fat Globules
Introduction	p. 173
The Nature and Size Distribution of Milk Fat Globules	p. 173
Differences in the Composition of Milk Fat Globules	p. 177
Fat Crystals in Globules	p. 177
Colloidal Interactions	p. 179
Physical Instability of Emulsions	p. 181
Separation of Milk	p. 183
Cold Agglutination	p. 184
Coalescence and Partial Coalescence	p. 188
Rebodying	p. 190
Factors that Affect the Surface Layers of Fat Globules in Milk and Cream	p. 191
Disruption of Globules	p. 192
Milk Fat Globules in Homogenized Milk and Cream	p. 196
Milk Fat Globules in Recombined Milk	p. 198
Free Fat	p. 200
Influence of Fat Globules on Rheological Properties of Milk and Cream	p. 201
Volume Fraction of the Dispersed Phase	p. 202
Rheology of the Component Phases	p. 202
Droplet Size	p. 203
Colloidal Interactions	p. 203
Particle Charge	p. 203
Conclusions	p. 204
Bibliography	p. 204
Composition, Applications, Fractionation, Technological and Nutritional Significance of Milk Fat Globule Membrane Material
Introduction	p. 213
Nutritional and Physiological Significance of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane	p. 214
Biological Significance of Native Globules	p. 216
MFGM Consumption Studies: Physiological and Nutritional Effects	p. 218
Composition and Bioactivity of Individual Components	p. 219
Phospholipids	p. 219
Ceramide Sphingolipids and Glycosphingolipids	p. 220
Proteins	p. 223
Butyrophilin	p. 224
Mucins	p. 226
Xanthine Oxidoreductase	p. 228
Fractionation and Technological Significance of Milk Fat Globule Membrane Material	p. 229
Effect of Processing on the Composition and Functionality of the MFGM	p. 230
Isolation of MFGM	p. 232
Application and Utilization of MFGM as a Functional Ingredient in Foods	p. 235
Conclusions and Future Research Directions	p. 237
Bibliography	p. 238
Crystallization and Rheological Properties of Milk Fat
Introduction	p. 245
Crystallization of Milk Fat	p. 245
Introduction	p. 245
Nucleation of Milk Fat	p. 247
Growth of Milk Fat Crystals	p. 248
Crystallization, Melting and Mixed Crystal Formation	p. 248
Polytypism and Polymorphism	p. 250
Structure and Rheology of Fat Crystal Networks	p. 254
Milk Fat and Butter Crystal Networks	p. 254
Methods used to Determine the Rheological Properties of Milk Fat	p. 254
Rheology of Milk Fat	p. 262
Modeling Fat Crystal Networks and Relating Structure to Rheology	p. 267
Modifying the Crystallization and Rheology of Milk Fat	p. 271
Manipulations of Butter Composition	p. 271
Manipulations During Processing	p. 274
Some Case Studies. Milk Fat Crystallization: Structure and Rheological Properties	p. 277
Effect of Cooling Rate on Milk Fat Crystallization and Rheology	p. 277
Effect of Supplementation with Algae Meal on Milk Fat Crystallization and Rheology	p. 279
Effect of Minor Components on Milk Fat Crystallization and Rheology	p. 280
Conclusion	p. 281
Bibliography	p. 281
Milk Fat: Physical, Chemical and Enzymatic Modification
Introduction	p. 293
Physical Modification of Milk Fat	p. 294
Fractionation	p. 295
Physical Blends of Milk Fat with Other Fats and Oils	p. 309
Modification of Milk Fat Properties by Addition of Minor Lipids	p. 311
Chemical Modification of Milk Fat	p. 313
Hydrogenation	p. 313
Chemical Interesterification	p. 314
Enzymic Modification of Milk Fat	p. 316
Enzymic Interesterification	p. 317
Enzymic Hydrolysis	p. 321
Cholesterol Reduction	p. 322
Distillation Processes	p. 322
Supercritical CO[subscript 2] Extraction	p. 323
Treatment with Adsorbents	p. 323
Treatment with Enzymes	p. 324
Future Trends	p. 324
Acknowledgements	p. 325
Bibliography	p. 325
Chemistry and Technology of Butter and Milk Fat Spreads
Introduction	p. 333
Legislation	p. 333
Emulsion Stability	p. 334
Consumer Pressures for Change	p. 334
Technical Aspects of Butter Manufacture	p. 336
Chemical and Physical Principles	p. 336
Technical Challenges in the Processing of Fat Spreads	p. 339
Rates of Microbial Growth	p. 339
Phase Inversion	p. 340
Technology of Spread Manufacture	p. 340
Processing	p. 340
Fundamental Aspects of Emulsions	p. 342
Emulsions: Theory, Rheology and Stability to Inversion	p. 342
Effects of Ingredients on Emulsion Stability	p. 348
Fat	p. 348
Emulsifiers	p. 350
Proteins	p. 351
Hydrocolloid Stabilizers	p. 353
Sodium Chloride	p. 354
Disodium Phosphate and Trisodium Citrate	p. 354
pH	p. 354
Interactions of Ingredients	p. 354
Interactions of Ingredients in Low-Fat Spreads	p. 355
Bibliography	p. 357
Further Reading	p. 362
Significance of Milk Fat in Cream Products
Introduction	p. 365
Coffee Cream	p. 366
Whipping Cream	p. 368
Cream Liqueurs	p. 372
Cultured Cream	p. 373
Bibliography	p. 374
Significance of Milk Fat in Cheese
Introduction	p. 377
Effect of Fat on Cheese Composition	p. 379
Fat Content	p. 379
Effect of Degree of Fat Emulsification as Influenced by Homogenization of Milk, Cream and/or Curd	p. 382
Contribution of Fat to the Microstructure of Cheese	p. 385
Microstructure of Rennet-Curd Cheese	p. 385
Microstructure of Pasteurized Processed Cheese Products (PCPs) and Analogue Cheese Products (ACPs)	p. 391
Effect of Fat Level on Microstructure	p. 392
Effect of Fat Emulsification on Microstructure	p. 393
Effect of Fat on Heat-induced Changes in Microstructure	p. 395
Effect of Fat on Cheese Yield	p. 397
Effect of Fat on Cheese Microbiology	p. 401
Effect of Fat on Proteolysis	p. 403
Primary Proteolysis	p. 403
Secondary Proteolysis	p. 406
Contribution of Lipolysis and Catabolism of Free Fatty Acids (FFA) to Cheese Flavor	p. 407
Lipolysis	p. 408
Metabolism of Fatty Acids	p. 410
Effect of Fat on the Fracture-Related Properties of Unheated Cheese	p. 413
Effect of Fat Content on Fracture Properties	p. 414
Effect of Solid-to-Liquid Fat Ratio on Fracture Properties	p. 414
Effect of Homogenization of Milk or Cream, and Degree of Fat Emulsification on Fracture Properties	p. 418
Effect of Fat on the Functional Properties of Heated Cheese	p. 419
Effect of Fat Level on Cooking Properties	p. 419
Effect of Milk Homogenization and Degree of Fat Emulsification	p. 425
Effect of Milk Fat Fraction on Cooking Properties	p. 427
Bibliography	p. 428
Ice Cream
Overview of Ice Cream Ingredients and Manufacture	p. 441
Sources of Fat in Ice Cream	p. 443
Contribution of Fat to the Structure of Ice Cream	p. 444
Contribution of Fat to Ice Cream Texture and Flavor	p. 447
Bibliography	p. 448
Significance of Milk Fat in Milk Powder
Introduction	p. 451
Overview of Milk Powder Manufacture	p. 452
Significance of Milk Fat during Powder Manufacture	p. 455
Significance of Milk Fat for the Flavor of Milk Powder	p. 457
Effect of Pre-heat Treatment on Oxidative Stability	p. 457
Influence of Moisture Content and Water Activity on the Oxidation of Fat in Milk Powder	p. 458
Effect of Oxygen Content and Packaging the Oxidation of Fat in Milk Powder	p. 458
Lipid Oxidation Products	p. 460
Role of Fat in the Physical Properties of Milk Powder	p. 461
Bibliography	p. 462
Significance of Milk Fat in Infant Formulae
The Nutritional Role of Lipids	p. 467
Fatty Acid Profile and Fat-Soluble Vitamins of Human Milk and Infant Requirements	p. 469
Biological Benefits of Milk Fatty Acids	p. 473
Formulation of Infant Formula Using Milk Fat as an Ingredient	p. 473
Summary	p. 476
Bibliography	p. 477
Lipolytic Enzymes and Hydrolytic Rancidity
Summary	p. 481
Introduction	p. 481
The Enzymes	p. 483
Cows' Milk Lipase	p. 483
Human Milk Lipases	p. 486
Milk Lipases of Other Species	p. 487
Esterases of Cows' Milk	p. 489
Lipases of Psychrotrophic Bacteria	p. 490
Phospholipases	p. 494
Lipolytic Enzymes in Milk Product Manufacture	p. 495
Causes of Hydrolytic Rancidity in Milk and Milk Products	p. 496
Induced Lipolysis	p. 497
Spontaneous Lipolysis	p. 501
Mastitis	p. 508
Microbial Lipolysis	p. 509
Detrimental Effects of Lipolysis in Milk and Milk Products	p. 511
Flavor Defects	p. 511
Technological Consequences	p. 516
Beneficial Effects of Lipolysis in Milk and Milk Products	p. 517
Production of Desirable Flavor	p. 517
Digestion of Milk Fat	p. 518
Analytical Methods	p. 519
Free Fatty Acids	p. 519
Lipase Activity	p. 524
Prevention of Hydrolytic Rancidity	p. 529
Bibliography	p. 530
Lipid Oxidation
Introduction	p. 557
Mechanism of Lipid Autoxidation	p. 558
Oxidation Products and Off-Flavors	p. 559
Spontaneous Oxidation in Milk	p. 561
Factors that Affect the Oxidation of Lipids in Milk and Milk Products	p. 563
Oxygen	p. 564
Light	p. 568
Metals	p. 570
Antioxidants	p. 572
Ascorbic Acid	p. 573
Tocopherols	p. 574
Carotenoids	p. 575
Thiols	p. 576
Proteins and Enzymes	p. 577
Products of Browning Reactions	p. 579
Milk Fat Globule Membrane (MFGM)	p. 580
Storage Temperature	p. 582
Water Activity	p. 582
Measurement of Lipid Oxidation	p. 583
Bibliography	p. 585
Nutritional Significance of Milk Lipids
Introduction	p. 601
Dietary Fat and Obesity	p. 602
Randomised Control Trials	p. 603
Safety of Low-Fat, High-Carbohydrate Diets	p. 603
Energy Value of Milk Fat	p. 603
Dietary Fat and Cancer	p. 604
Colon Cancer	p. 605
Breast Cancer	p. 606
Prostate Cancer	p. 607
Comment	p. 608
Milk Fat and Coronary Heart Disease	p. 608
Plasma Cholesterol and CHD	p. 609
Saturated Fatty Acids and CHD	p. 610
Dietary Cholesterol and CHD	p. 612
Intervention Studies for CHD Prevention	p. 613
Comment	p. 614
Trans Fatty Acids and CHD	p. 615
Clinical Studies	p. 615
Epidemiological Studies	p. 616
Biological Explanation for the Disparate Effects	p. 616
RA and Atherosclerosis	p. 617
Anti-Cancer Agents in Milk Fat	p. 618
Rumenic Acid	p. 619
Sphingolipids and Colon Cancer	p. 622
Butyric Acid	p. 625
13-Methyltetradecanoic Acid	p. 628
Ether Lipids	p. 628
Cholesterol	p. 628
[beta]-Carotene and Vitamin A	p. 629
Vitamin D and its Metabolites	p. 630
Anti-Cancer Agents from Feed	p. 630
Milk Fat and Cancer	p. 631
Other Nutritional Benefits	p. 631
Conclusions	p. 632
Bibliography	p. 633
Oxysterols: Formation and Biological Function
Introduction	p. 641
Formation of Oxysterols	p. 642
Cholesterol Autoxidation	p. 643
Initiation of Cholesterol Oxidation	p. 652
Oxysterols in Food Products	p. 653
Oxysterols in Dehydrated Systems	p. 655
Oxysterols in High-Fat Products	p. 656
Other Factors Involved in Oxysterol Formation	p. 657
Sources of Oxysterols In Vivo	p. 657
Absorption of Dietary Oxysterols	p. 658
Oxysterols Formed Endogenously by Nonenzymatic Oxidation	p. 659
Oxysterols Formed Enzymatically	p. 661
Biological Effects of Oxysterols	p. 662
Effects of Oxysterols on Cell Membranes	p. 662
Oxysterols and Apoptosis	p. 663
Oxysterols and Atherosclerosis	p. 665
Conclusions	p. 667
Bibliography	p. 667
High Performance Liquid Chromatography and Gas Chromatography Methods for Lipid Analysis
Introduction	p. 675
Quantification of FFAs	p. 676
Gas Chromatography	p. 676
High Performance Liquid Chromatography	p. 678
Isolation of FFA	p. 679
GC Analysis	p. 683
HPLC Analysis	p. 685
Conjugated Linoleic Acid	p. 686
Lipid-Derived Volatile Aroma and Flavor Compounds	p. 687
Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry	p. 687
Isolation and Concentration of Volatile Lipid-Derived Components	p. 688
Tri-, Di- and Mono-Acylglycerols	p. 690
Chromatographic Methods for the Analysis of Lipolytic Activity	p. 692
Bibliography	p. 692
Spectroscopic Techniques (NMR, Infrared and Fluorescence) for the Determination of Lipid Composition and Structure in Dairy Products
Spectroscopic Techniques Used to Study Fats in Dairy Products	p. 697
Infrared Spectroscopy	p. 697
Fluorescence Spectroscopy	p. 698
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance	p. 700
Characterization of Dairy Products, Including Cheeses	p. 701
Direct Determination of the Concentrations of Different Compounds	p. 701
Direct Determination of the Structure of Fats in Dairy Products	p. 702
Conclusion	p. 705
Bibliography	p. 706
Applications of Ultrasound to Analysis/Quantitation of Dairy Lipids
Introduction	p. 709
Theory of Ultrasound Propagation through Solid and Liquid Lipids	p. 711
Introduction	p. 711
Physical Determinants of Attenuation, Phase and Group Velocity	p. 712
Ultrasound Methods for Characterizing Dairy Lipids	p. 716
Tracking Crystallization	p. 716
Conclusions	p. 720
Acknowledgements	p. 721
Bibliography	p. 721
Physical Characterization of Milk Fat and Milk Fat-Based Products
Introduction	p. 725
Thermal Properties: Phase Change Behavior	p. 726
Melting and Solidification Points: Introduction	p. 726
Melting Points	p. 726
Solidification Point	p. 729
Dilatometry	p. 729
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance	p. 731
Differential Scanning Calorimetry	p. 731
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)	p. 740
Combined DSC and XRD	p. 745
Coupled DSC and XRD	p. 746
Thermal Properties: Critical Temperatures	p. 750
Rheological Properties	p. 751
Introduction	p. 751
Rheological Behavior and Material Classification	p. 751
Rheological Characterization of Materials	p. 752
Viscometers and the Measurement of Fundamental Viscous Properties	p. 753
Solids Rheometers and the Measurement of Fundamental Elastic Properties	p. 756
Measurement of Linear Viscoelastic Properties	p. 759
Measurement of Nonlinear Viscoelastic Properties	p. 760
Measurement of Extensional Viscosity	p. 761
Application of Rheological Techniques to Milk Fat and Milk Fat-Based Dairy Products	p. 762
Density	p. 765
Electromagnetic Properties	p. 766
Refractive Index	p. 766
Color	p. 767
Dielectric Properties	p. 768
Electrical Conductivity	p. 770
Functional Properties	p. 770
Milk Fat and Butter	p. 771
Ice Cream	p. 771
Chocolate	p. 771
Whole Milk Powders	p. 771
Acknowledgements	p. 772
Bibliography	p. 772
Index	p. 779
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

ISBN: 9780387263649
ISBN-10: 0387263640
Audience: Professional
Format: Hardcover
Language: English
Number Of Pages: 828
Published: February 2006
Dimensions (cm): 23.5 x 15.5 x 4.4
Weight (kg): 2.93

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